lifestyle of an ascetic, engaged in conversations with brahmans, and sought
to present the Bible as a “fifth Veda.” A small mission was established in
Maturai, primarily comprised of upper-class converts who were later joined
by such foreigners as missionary scholar Constantine Beschi(1710–47),
whose Tamil had native fluency.^14
Francis Xavierspent several years in Goa before and after visiting China
(1542–45 and 1948–49). Xavier’s legacy is mixed. He promised Portuguese
protection for fisher folk (paravars) along the Kerala coast in exchange
for their being baptized. Accordingly, he lined up and baptized thousands
of them though their education into Catholicism was minimal. It was also
Xavier who wrote to King Joao IIof Portugal to urge him to hold his rep-
resentatives accountable for propagating Christianity and increasing
conversions. In partial response, King Joao instructed his viceroy to “destroy
all idols,” penalize any who “dare to make an idol” or “shelter... a brahman”
and to afford special favor to Christians in filling appointments and receiving
material aid.^15 The inquisition had been imported to India and the
converting or scattering of non-Christians in Goa had accelerated.
The Dutch East India Company’s interest in India was not as intense as
its commitment to the Indonesian islands, which were perceived to be richer
in the spices and goods Europeans sought. Nonetheless, small Dutch
outposts were established along the southern coast at Cochin, Nagapattinam,
Pulicat,et al. As noted earlier, their greatest contribution to the subcontinent
may have been their support of Jewish communities and their amelioration
of Portuguese excesses. Otherwise, they had little religious impact.
The French were relative latecomers to the subcontinent. Founded in
1664, la Compagnie des Indes Orientales did establish seaport enclaves in
Chandernagore (Bengal) and Pondicherry (Tamil Nadu). In fact, for two
decades in the mid-1700s, under the leadership of the skilled administrator,
Joseph F. Dupleix, the French had considerable hegemony in the south.^16
However, by the end of the century, they were defeated near what is now
Kolkata (once Calcutta) by British and local troops led by Robert Clive. By
then the British were better funded, not only by their annexations in India,
but also by their China trade. Nevertheless, Pondicherry remained a pocket
of French access to India until 1954 and even now includes a center for the
study of Indian culture and religion by French scholars.
The Danish East India Company established enclaves in Serampore
(Bengal) and Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu), which were to prove significant
for development in the religious life of India. In the early years of the
European trading companies supported by “Protestant” crowns, only
chaplains were made available to work with the households of European
nationals. The Danish crown was the first to make an exception. In 1709, the
Danish crown sponsored the recruitment and support of Bartholomaus
Streams from the “West” and their Aftermath 173