time, he sought to restate “Vedic” ideas in contemporary dress: for example,
that God was one, but took on many forms and had many names. He coined
the term sana ̄tana dharmato speak of the eternality of the dharma, one reason
why Hinduism was deemed superior to Islam and Christianity. Not least
important, he founded the A ̄rya Sama ̄j in 1875 to become the instrument
for the purifying and homogenizing of Hinduism and for making it the
national norm. As such, he (and especially his followers) wanted to reconvert
Muslims and Christians, establish a Hindu state, and outlaw the killing
of cows, a symbolic expression of Hindu piety.^26 The A ̄rya Sama ̄j became the
model for later, even more militant, religious-political groups that sought to
Hinduize the Indian body politic: the Jan Sangh, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak
Sangh (RSS), and the Vishwa Hindu Paris.ad (VHP).
Stage two
From the mid- to the late nineteenth century, a number of developments
marked the Indian landscape. One of these was the strengthening of a
sense of Indian nationalism. Ironically, fueled in part by the nationalisms of
Europe, it took at least two forms. The first was a moderate effort to nudge
the British to more responsive policies and Indians to various forms of self-
reform.Nairoji(1825–1917), for example, a Pa ̄rsı ̄ graduate of Elphinstone
College, moved to England in 1855 where he was eventually elected to the
British parliament (1892) to represent a section of London. He continually
sought to urge the crown to redress the financial exploitation of India and
to provide her more political representation.^27
Similarly, two Maharashtrian brahmans were active in this form of
moderate nationalism. Ranade(1842–1901) worked toward certain social
reforms – the elimination of child marriage and the increase of women’s
rights among others. In speeches, he argued for the need for change in
certain Indian attitudes – no longer should Indians perceive differences
between people based on heredity, which led to fragmentation of society
and the propensity to ignore people outside of one’s inner circle. One
should learn to accept responsibility for oneself and follow the dictates of
conscience and not of other men.^28
Ranade’s friend and follower Gohhale(1866–1915) similarly fought for
certain causes: famine relief, Hindu–Muslim unity, and elevation of the
“lower classes” among them. At the same time, he attacked the British policy
of taxation that did not yield economic benefit for Indians. He became active
in the Indian National Congress, which in 1883 became the official organ
through which Indians would work toward independence.^29
In some cases, the nationalism was more militant. Another Maharashtrian
brahman, B. G. Tilak (1856–1920) illustrated that pattern well. Tilak was a
178 Streams from the “West” and their Aftermath