for example, a spirit of egalitarianism, and self-giving service. Institutions
of social activism were formed. Strategies of communication (e.g., street
preaching and printing pamphlets) were often borrowed from Christian
propagandists.^51 Not least important, there was a co-opting of Christian
ideas and making these consistent with Hindu traditions. Thus, Hindus
could speak of Christ as “true guru” (Subba Rao), the “perfect god-man”
(Brahmandero), and exemplary renunciant, oriental avata ̄ra, and embodi-
ment of “true religion” (Vivekananda), or the yogin par excellence (Swami
Akhilananda).^52
Pre-independence India
As intimated above, many of the issues which fueled discussion of India’s
nineteenth century informed discourse in the first half of the twentieth
century as well: the concern for envisioning a new India which took its place
in a global network; the role of history in shaping the present; the concern
for a people free of colonial control; and the place of religion in a modern
setting; all these continued to be part of the agendas of India’s elites. The
thought and contribution of several significant figures can illustrate the
trends in pre-independence India.
Mohandas Gandhi(1869–1948) was certainly one of the significant figures
on the Indian scene from the 1920s until independence. Born in Gujarat
of an industrious father and deeply religious mother, and influenced early
in life by Jain neighbors, Gandhi studied law in London. There, he redis-
covered the Bhagavadgı ̄ta ̄and his Hindu identity through the eyes of Western
seekers. Unable to find work in India, he went to South Africa for two
decades where he became active in helping Indians resist the racist laws of
the white administration; it was in South Africa that his religio-political
strategy of satyagraha(the force of truth) developed. This principle affirmed
that truth was the very nature of the universe (satya[truth] equals brahman
[cosmic essence]); that all peoples shared a common essence; that the force
of that truth could be enacted in non-violent action that would embarrass
and force an oppressor to change laws. The strategy was designed to unite
all persons, irrespective of educational, religious, or economic status into
boycotts, marches, and protests that would put economic and international
political pressure to bear on repressive regimes. It was also in South Africa,
where Gandhi stayed for a while in the home of Plymouth Brethren mission-
aries, that he came to appreciate aspects of Christian social ethics while
disdaining doctrinaire Christian theology.
When Gandhi returned to India at the age of forty-five, he became
actively engaged in the Indian National Congress. By now he had adapted
186 Streams from the “West” and their Aftermath