some chieftains and would-be rulers called on bra ̄hman.apriests for the
conduct of elaborate sacrifices such as the ra ̄ jasu ̄yaor the as ́vamedha. But
for increasing numbers, the “forest” became a place of refuge. Not only were
there still heavy forests in the upper Ganges valley; but the “forest” also
became a metaphor for the life of seeking and reflection, a haven from
urban problems and a liminal space for finding the “truth”; the life of
contemplation and asceticism was viewed favorably by the “trendsetters.”
If there was an ongoing dialectic in Indian culture and religion in sub-
sequent centuries between city and forest, culture and nature, the favored
metaphors in this period of transition appear to have been those of nature
and forest.
TheUpanis.ads
On the vaidikaside, that is, amongst bra ̄hman.asand others who sought
to maintain legitimation from Vedic sources, the mood of the period is
represented in the Upanis.ads. The term Upanis.adseems to connote “connec-
tions,” from the term bandhu.^3 The search for equivalences, classifications,
or congruences is suggested by the term. This quest for “connections” often
occurred in small groups as disciples (s ́isya) gathered around a teacher
(guru). Both teacher and student were drawn largely from bra ̄hman.aand
ks.atriyacommunities and were both male and female. Indeed, at least two
women – Ga ̄rgı ̄ Va ̄caknavı ̄andMaitreyı ̄– were mentioned as serious
students cum teachers. The oldest of these Upanis.ads(no doubt reduced to
writing some centuries later) represented oral exchanges occurring around
the seventh century BCE. These included the Br.hada ̄ran.yaka Upanis.ad,
centered perhaps in the lower Gangetic basin and a product of the Yajurveda
school of Vedic hymnists. The most commonly mentioned teacher in this
school is Ya ̄jñavalkya. The other early set of dialogues is that of the Cha ̄ndogya
Upanis.ad, centered perhaps northwest of the upper Ganges in an area
brahmanic writers referred to as A ̄rya ̄varta. It was a product of the Sa ̄maveda
singers. Other significant Upanis.adsrepresenting reflections occurring
by the sixth to fifth centuries BCEare the Taittirı ̄ya,Aitareya, and Kaus. ̄ takaı
Upanis.ads. Such collections as the Kena,Kat.ha, ̄Is ́a ̄,S ́veta ̄s ́vatara, and Mun.d.aka
Upanis.adswere probably products of the last few centuries BCEand, among
other things, expressed a more theistic orientation.^4
These circles of seekers were hardly unanimous in their speculations, and
their discussions covered a wide range of topics. There was some interest
in the efficacy of rituals (albeit in somewhat less elaborate form) and
descriptions of rituals for specific occasions – from those to assure a woman’s
becoming pregnant to those intended to prevent pregnancy. Yet a common
The Early Urban Period 31