pattern through the discourses was an attempt to make congruences
between the older Vedic ritual symbolism and other domains, especially the
body or person of the individual. While in the earlier Vedic discourses,
connections were sought between the ritual system and cosmic processes,
now the connections sought were more commonly those between parts
of the human being and cosmic processes. The use of the numbers three or
five continued the symbolic power of the older numerology – hence, reflec-
tions on the five “breaths,” for example – breaths which were thought to flow
in various ways throughout the body.^5 Similarly, “heat” (tapas) could be
internalized to connote the meditative techniques which were thought to
bring about ultimate release. While there were indications of an urban
landscape in the discourses – for example, references to certain crafts and
the court^6 – there was greater emphasis on the value of ascetism in seeking
freedom from urban malaise. Homologies were made between sacrificial
space and bodily space. Punning and homophones were not uncommon. In
the course of these discussions certain fundamental terms were used which
became basic for much later speculation in India. In fact, many of the key
questions which drive much of Indian religion and thought in subsequent
centuries were raised by these Upanis.adic seekers:
- What is the nature of the world or cosmos? This was a question already
intimated in the cosmogonic myths of the Vedic hymnists. - What is the nature of the self? That is, what does it mean to be a person?
Is there a permanent entity that can be called a Self? The Upanis.adic
sages invariably answered this last question in the affirmative. - What is ultimate? The term brahmanwas used to describe the ultimate
essence, though this was articulated in various ways by different scholars.
Further,satya(“truth” derived from the verb as– to be), was perceived
to be one and the same as being itself. Knowing that brahmanwas the
essence of the universe was to know the “truth” that was ultimately
liberating. - How does one attain ultimacy? The preferred path of the Upanis.adic
sages was the path of wisdom (jña ̄na), attained through stringent
ascetism and contemplation, though ritual was not eschewed.
Many of these basic concerns were intimated in a passage that has become
especially well known to Western students (Cha ̄ndogya6); here a sage is
teaching a younger man, S ́vetaketu, the nature of the universe.
“Bring a banyan fruit.”
“Here it is sir.”32 The Early Urban Period