putting logs on the fire. That is, nirva ̄n.awas not a place (such as “heaven”)
nor immortality – it was, at most, a change of consciousness which enabled
one to live without attachments and with equanimity of mind. It was putting
an end to one’s thirst.
How was this done? The fourth truth, known as the eightfold path out-
lined a pattern which combined appropriate action with appropriate
mindfulness. It was a discipline designed to make the path a foretaste of the
goal. Succinctly summarized, these eight principles were right insight,
understanding, or vision; right intention or thoughts; right speech; right
action; right livelihood; right effort; right mindfulness and memory; and
right concentration.
This path to enlightenment represented a coalescence of several factors.
It represented the interplay between performing acts of merit (puñnˆa) and
eschewing acts of demerit (papa). It embodied an ethic intended to
encourage charitable acts, humane social relationships, sexual control,
and non-violence. The incorporation of non-violence was clearly a reaction
to the perceived excesses of Vedic sacrifices and to the coerciveness of the
chiefly power brokers; it may also have reflected the shift from pastoral to
agricultural economies. Renunciation, as the early Buddhists understood
it, was not so much the life of an ascetic – the loner who eschewed all
attachments to social ties; rather, it was to assert a certain moral authority
and to join with a group of fellow-renouncers who, by engaging with lay-
persons on the fringes of the towns, were offering an alternative way of life.^15
Enacting this fourth principle was not easy. But it was thought to be
available to anyone irrespective of birth or gender. It was not a path of
extreme asceticism and certainly not one of hedonism or pleasure, hence,
it was called the middle way. Seekers had to learn the way to enlightenment
on their own, albeit with the help of instruction. That is, there was no god
to offer salvation, but there were teachers and exemplars. One story sug-
gested something of this ethic. A woman, having just lost her only child,
came to the Buddha for help. “Sir, do you have medicine for me?” The
answer was: “No; but eat some mustard seeds, but make sure you get
the seeds from a family that has never experienced death.” Some time later
she returned and Buddha asked her if she had found the seeds. “No,”
she replied, “but you have healed me.” She had learned that there was
no family which had not experienced death, and the perspective of that
realization proved liberating. In fact, the story continued, the woman joined
the community of nuns.^16
The question often asked of the early Buddhists was on the issue of
“permanence” versus “impermanence.” Can a candle be the same if it is
burned to the end or if another candle is lit from its flame? Not really, was
the common answer; there was a logic of continuity as one entity of matter
44 The Early Urban Period