70 CHAPTER THREEthat certain foods are impure, that bodily wastes pollute spiritually, that certain
acts or objects are lucky or unlucky, or that certain plants and animals are
taboo because of their association with particular divinities.
Another noteworthy feature is the prominent role the Vinaya gives to in-
tention, in line with the general Buddhist teachings on the importance of in-
tention in shaping one's experience of the cosmos. In most cases, an
unintentional infraction of a rule does not count as an offense. Two dominant
ethical concerns of the code are nonviolence and celibacy, which derive from
the principles of right resolve in the Noble Eightfold Path (see Section 2.3.1).
Ahimsa (nonviolence) develops the virtue of compassion, whereas ascetic con-
tinence avoids desire and lust, directing the force of Eros to spiritual goals.
The Vinaya does not view the monk as working out his own salvation un-
aided (see Section 2.4). Rather, each monk is his brother's keeper. When the
ordinand joins the Sangha, he surrenders some liberties and submits to the
collective authority of the community (Strong EB, sec. 2.3.2). The Khan-
dhakas (see Section 3.1.2) lay down disciplinary procedures for bringing the
obstinate and the wayward to conformity, with punishments ranging from
censure to suspension from the Sangha. All these acts lapse when their object
has mended his ways.
The Vinaya insists throughout on due process of law. The offender is
warned, reminded of the rules, and, if his unacceptable behavior persists, is
formally charged and duly tried by a jury consisting of the whole chapter. A
transgressor may not be penalized for an act he does not admit doing, cannot
be tried while absent, and may speak in his own defense. Once sentence has
been passed in line with the proper procedure, however, he must accept it and
try to mend his ways. The code, like the Talmud and the New Testament ex-
hortations, is designed to compel confession of mistakes and reconciliation of
conflicts. Although stringent, the punishments prescribed in the Vinaya con-
stitute a middle ground between laxity and harshness.
The discipline presupposes a high degree of earnestness and integrity. It
will work only if most candidates enter voluntarily and in good faith. For this
reason, full upasampadii (ordination) is granted only to those who are at least
20 years of age and who have formally requested admission to the Sangha.
Eight years, however, is the minimum age for the pabbaJii (novitiate ordina-
tion), which even adult candidates must undergo-albeit briefly-before pro-
ceeding to full ordination. In the "going forth" ceremony, the ordinand has
his head shaven, is invested with the ochre robes, and takes the Three Refuges
and Ten Precepts to abstain from (1) taking life; (2) stealing; (3) sexual inter-
course; (4) lying; (5) drinking liquor; (6) eating after noon; (7) watching dane-.
il).g, singing, and shows; (8) adorning himself with garlands, perfumes, and
ointments; (9) using a high bed or seat; and (1 0) receiving gold and silver
(Strong EB, sees. 3.5.1, 3.5.2). The ordinand is thereafter a novice and has left
the household life. If under the age of 20, he must live with a preceptor until
he disrobes or gains full ordination upon coming of age. The preceptor must
have passed 10 years since full ordination and must be of good character,
knowledgeable, and competent. The novice may also, at his preceptor's discre-