72 CHAPTER THREEwhom she planned to live, and again by the local assembly of monks. She,
too, had to undergo a period of apprenticeship to a senior nun, although hers
was for four years: two as a postulant before her ordination, and an additional
two afterward.3.4.2 The Life of the Monks
From the very beginning of the tradition, the life of the monks combined two
modes: eremitic (solitary wandering) and cenobitic (settled communities). The
Vinaya presents a picture in which the ideal monk followed both modes by
wandering during the dry season of each year and then settling down with
fellow monks during the rains. During the dry season he might live-alone or
with small groups of his fellows-under a tree, in a cave, on a hillside, in a
glen or forest glade, in a thatched hut, or even in the shade of a haystack. Nat-
urally, he stayed near a village or town for his alms. His possessions were kept
simple and few so that he could travel light, "like a bird, with its wings as its
only burden" (D.2). Ideally, he owned only one set of clothing: an under robe,
upper robe, outer cloak, and belt. The robes, donated by the laity or made by
the monk from thrown-away rags, were dyed reddish brown. He also wore
sandals and carried a begging-bowl, a razor, tweezers, nail clippers, some gauze
for filtering water, a needle, and a bag of medicines. He was allowed an um-
brella against the sun and a fan against the heat. At least once every other
month he shaved his head without using a mirror; mirrors were forbidden to
him, as were adornments, cosmetics and perfumes, music and song. The ideal
Buddhist nun's personal possessions were equally meager.
During the three months of the monsoons (or rainy season)-July to Oc-
tober (varsa; in Pili; vassa)-open-air living became difficult, and travel impos-
sible, so the Buddha directed that the monks settle for the period in dwellings
sufficiently closed-off to protect them from the elements. There they could
pursue their spiritual development, learn from one another, and conduct com-
munal business relatively undisturbed. The sites selected for such resting places
had to be secluded enough to ensure a proper atmosphere for meditation, but
close enough to a village or town for alms-going. The return of the dry sea-
son was marked by ceremonies at which the laity presented gifts of cloth and
other necessities to the monks, who then set out on their solitary wanderings,
leaving only a few of their number behind to maintain the dwellings.
With the passage of time, these temporary dwellings developed into settled
monasteries. According to the Vinaya texts, this process began during the
Buddha's lifetime, when wealthy donors made permanent gifts of land to the
Sangha and erected buildings on them (see Section 2.4). Scholars have de-
bated whether the texts can be believed on this point, the argument boiling
down not to any firm evidence but simply to the question of whether such a
process could conceivably have occurred during the 45 years of the Buddha's
teaching career. Modern experience with the "domestication" of forest monks
(see Section 7.5.2) indicates that such a time frame is entirely possible. At any
rate, the Vinaya provides detailed rules for the running of such communities