Chapter 8 - The Syntax of Non-Finite Clauses1.2 Clauses without IP
If some clauses can lack CPs, the question naturally arises as to how small clauses can
get. Recall that clauses are structured in various layers, each of which adds something
to the interpretation of the whole clause. But the basic proposition is expressed by a
predicate and its arguments. As the predicate does not have to be a verb a basic
proposition can be expressed with no verbal element at all:
(26) a Tim tall – Tim is tall
b Graham in the garden – Graham is in the garden
c Steven a student – Steven is a student
Both expressions on either side of the hyphen state exactly the same relationships
between the predicate and its arguments. The difference is that while the expressions
on the right are grammatical English sentences, those on the left are not. Or at least,
one might think so. But consider the following:
(27) a I consider [Tim tall]
b I require [Graham in the garden]
c I believed [Steven a student]
Given that these ‘basic propositions’ can be replaced by a full clause with virtually
the same meaning, it seems that we should view them as being clauses of one sort or
another:
(28) a I consider [that Tim is tall]
b I require [Graham to be in the garden]
c I believed [that Steven is a student]
But what kind of a clause lacks a VP, let alone a CP or an IP? Moreover, what is the
categorial status of such clauses?
One of the earliest suggestions, which still has a certain appeal, is that these clauses
are simply phrases with subjects (Stowell 1983, who termed these constructions Small
Clauses):
(29) a I consider [AP Tim [A' tall]]
b I require [PP Graham [P' in the garden]]
c I believed [DP Steven [D' a student]]
One argument which favours this analysis is that different verbs take different types of
small clauses as their complements and what determines the type of the clause is the
head of the predicate part of the clause following the subject. The verb consider, for
example, takes an AP type and a DP type of small clause, but not a PP type:
(30) a I consider [DP him a liar]
b I consider [AP him untrustworthy]
c *I consider [PP him in the garden]
The verb, order, on the other hand, takes PP types, but not AP or DP types: