A government that had intended to end corruption be-
came one of the most corrupt of all. Th is was the government
of the Qin Dynasty (221–207 b.c.e.), which imposed the legal-
ist philosophy of government. Under legalism, every action
was either sanctioned or forbidden by law. Th e idea was to
regulate life so that everybody did what they were supposed
to do and never did what they were not supposed to do. Th e
laws were so strict and so numerous that people could not
help but break a few every day, and punishments were harsh.
Even slight off enses could result in a sentence of mutilation
and several years of hard labor on the government’s construc-
tion projects. Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi used the laws to force
hundreds of thousands of people to work on the Great Wall
and elsewhere, where many died from the harsh conditions.
When the emperor died, his advisers Li Si (ca. 280–208
b.c.e.) and Han Fei Zi (d. 233 b.c.e.) pretended that he was
still alive and sent his eldest son a phony message ordering
him to commit suicide. Prince Fusu ignored the pleadings
of his father’s chief general to make sure the order was real
before he killed himself, but he committed suicide anyway.
Prince Huhai became emperor, controlled by Li Si and Han
Fei Zi. Th e corruption of this period was so severe that the
Qin Dynasty was already crumbling when rebels toppled it.
During the Han Dynasty (202 b.c.e.–220 c.e.), Confu-
cian scholars were allowed to try to impose a more benevo-
lent form of government. It proved impossible to stamp out
bribery, especially in remote provinces. Th e court system
was corrupted by wealthy criminals who paid poor people to
serve their sentences for them. In cities young people some-
times formed gangs and beat, killed, and robbed people. Th e
government tried to eliminate the gangs with diligent police
work and informants, but the police were too oft en bribed.
Tax collectors frequently took more than the law allowed and
kept it for themselves. Th e punishment for this practice was
death, but it was common enough to help inspire a peasant
revolt in 14 c.e.
Th roughout the recorded history of India corruption was
a problem. Indian literature, folktales, and historical writings
from about the fi rst century c.e. onward feature many tales
of corrupt practices, and historians have found accounts in
records from as early as the 300s c.e. In the court system wit-
nesses oft en slanted their testimony in court to favor which-
ever side was paying them. Th is meant that innocent people
were oft en convicted and punished for crimes. To make mat-
ters worse, the convicted criminal’s spouse and children were
imprisoned as well. Th ey all were bound by the ankles amid
fi lth and beaten and tortured two or three times a day.
Gambling and prostitution were common. Gambling
was forbidden by Hindu religious rules of conduct, but it was
usually sanctioned and regulated by the government. Gam-
blers oft en lost their family’s fortune, forcing them to become
slaves or to spend their lives trying to pay their debts. Some-
times a gambler made a fortune, which was known as “black”
money, as opposed to money earned honestly through gov-
ernment service or a trade.Prostitutes almost always associated with such criminals
as con artists, burglars, and extortionists, so the government
oft en used them as spies on criminals. A prostitute could earn
a good name this way because she worked for the secret po-
lice, making her work in the public interest. Prostitutes varied
from sickly streetwalkers just trying to earn enough for food
to women who were well trained from childhood to seduce
rich men. Th e latter group were well educated, had excellent
taste, knew what to say on every occasion, and were gift ed in
all the various sexual acts that would ensnare men. Th e edu-
cation of prostitutes was regulated by the national govern-
ment, and their teachers were oft en paid by the government
because the work of prostitutes was considered a contribut-
ing factor in the health of the nation. When beginning their
careers in brothels, they were taught to be without pity; their
object was to seduce men, discard them, and move on to the
next rich man. Occasionally a prostitute became a man’s wife,
and typically she worked extra hard to be a good wife.
Sex scandals sometimes shaped India’s history. For ex-
ample, there is the legendary account of Amrapali, a famous
courtesan in the Licchavi Republic in northern India around
400 b.c.e. She was so successful that she had become the
land’s leading lady. King Bimbisāra of Magadha, an enemy of
the Licchavis, sneaked into their capital of Vaisali and spent
a week undetected enjoying the company of Amrapali. Th eir
pride injured, the knights of Licchavi attacked Magadha with
great vigor and sparked a war that Magadha won, which
helped to propel Magadha toward building an empire that
eventually ruled most of India.
Perhaps equally scandalous was the death of Bimbisāra,
who was starved by his son Ajatashatru (fl. 300s b.c.e.). Th is
seems to have been common among the monarchs of ancient
India. Th e king was alleged to have chosen to starve himself
to death, but usually a scheming son was responsible. When
Ajatashatru’s old enemy Prasenajit, king of Koshala, was over-
thrown in his turn by his son, Prasenajit fl ed to Ajatashatru
and then died of exhaustion. Th is gave Ajatashatru an excuse
to avenge Prasenajit, and he attacked Koshala, ending its ex-
istence.
Very little is known of scandals and corruption in an-
cient Japan, but there are hints from Chinese observers. One
such was an ambassador, Zhang Zheng, to Queen Himiko’s
court in the 200s b.c.e. Himiko lived to a great age but ap-
parently died without a successor. Her kingdom was called
Yamatai and was composed of about 50 states, each with its
own chief. Aft er her death the chiefs selected a man to replace
her. According to Zhang Zheng, the king’s rule was marred
by constant murders and inept government administration.
Zhang Zheng claims that aft er two years he helped engineer
the ouster of the king and his replacement by a 12-year-old
girl whose name may have been Inoye.
Th e rest of Asia and the Pacifi c’s cultures probably had
their own forms of corruption and scandal, but archaeolo-
gists and historians are making slow progress in uncovering
evidence for such practices in central Asia, Southeast Asia,scandals and corruption: Asia and the Pacific 9130895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i913 913 10/10/07 2:30:25 PM