chief residences was found in Scotland from the fi rst century
b.c.e. to the second c.e. Known as a broch, this structure was
a stone tower, of which some fi ve hundred were built. Sur-
rounding it were the houses of the rest of the village. Despite
broch being Scottish for “borough” or “fortifi ed place,” the
structure was not a military post or fort but a fortifi ed house,
akin to the castles of the Middle Ages and the home of the
local chief.
Th e broch’s wall, 15 feet or more in thickness, was actu-
ally two walls, which converged toward one another as they
rose to a height that could exceed 40 feet. With some brochs
the two walls sat atop a single solid wall; with others, they
began at ground level. Passageways with wooden fl oors ran
between the walls and were probably used for storage. Th e
double-walled construction made for good insulation from
the harsh northern winters. Th e broch’s entryway was a large
tunnel that could be closed off with a heavy wooden door
fastened by wooden bars. Beyond the door was a chamber,
perhaps meant to house guards, and a stairway that led up to
the wall passages. Tower interiors ranged in size from 18 to
40 feet in diameter. Built against the inside wall were several
wooden or stone rooms, or cells, whose own walls sometimes
contained cupboards and windows that looked out on the
broch’s interior. Some brochs had a walled courtyard inside.
PUBLIC HALLS
In some ancient European villages, chiefs may have presided
over village meetings, feasts, and other community activities
in a public hall. Exceptionally lengthy longhouses, such as the
148-foot ones of central Europe, may have been such commu-
nity halls. A diff erent kind of longhouse found in Scotland,
Britain, and northwestern and central Europe may also have
been a village hall. Th ese buildings diff ered from the usual
longhouse in having rounded corners and being twice as
wide, at about 40 feet. Th e interior was divided into rooms
with partitions, and animals were apparently kept in stalls in
some of these structures. It is also probable that, despite their
communal nature, one or more families lived in these halls.
RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS
It is also possible that these halls were used for religious cer-
emonies. If so, they were among the few buildings that func-
tioned for worship in ancient Europe, whose people preferred
outdoor sacred sites. Occupying Romans did build temples,
but these were for their own use. Only on the island of Malta
between 3600 to 2500 b.c.e. did large temples appear in an-
cient Europe. Built in groups of two, three, or four, these tem-
ples had walls made of limestone covering a core of dirt and
broken rock. A large entryway led into a central passage, off
of which were three to six semicircular chambers. Floors were
covered with crushed limestone or paved with stone. At least
one temple had stairs leading to the roof, which was prob-
ably fl at and made of clay-coated wood. Another temple had
red-painted walls. Other religious structures in Europe for
the next several thousand years were generally simpler aff airs
than those of Malta. Some villages had a shrine that was a
house set apart from the rest and left vacant except for human
and animal fi gurines.
In the last centuries b.c.e. and the fi rst centuries c.e. the
Celts built both shrines and temples. A Celtic shrine built
during this period was a small structure with a pitched roof
and gables supported by posts. Th e structure lacked walls and
was surrounded by a palisade and a ditch, across which was
a wooden bridge. More elaborate were circular, stone Celtic
temples found in southern France. Infl uenced by Greek archi-
tecture, each temple had a colonnaded portico, a porch with
regularly spaced columns. Th e portico surrounded a cella, or
sanctuary. Th e latter always towered over the portico and was
paved with stones arranged in geometric shapes.GREECE
BY MICHAEL J.O’NEAL
For generations of tourists, a visit to Greece has meant touring
architectural ruins in Athens and other sites throughout the
country. Even those who have never visited Greece are likely
to recognize the names of some of the most famous sites, such
as the Parthenon, for these buildings are tangible reminders
of the beginnings of Western civilization. Greek builders
inspired and taught the later builders of the Roman Empire
(31 b.c.e.–476 c.e.); the Romans copied Greek architecture
extensively, and many of their surviving buildings provide
insight into the methods and materials of Greek architects.
Indeed, much of what archaeologists know about Greek ar-
chitecture comes from their knowledge of later Roman ar-
chitecture. Still today, modern buildings are sometimes built
in the Greek Revival style, suggesting that they copy many of
the features of ancient Greek architecture.
Interestingly, the architects of ancient Greece were not
regarded as artists, as prominent architects in modern times
are. An architect was seen as a combination of skilled trades-
man, contractor, and builder. Th e state—or sometimes a
wealthy individual—hired an architect to complete a building
project. He designed the building, hired the necessary labor-
ers, acquired the materials, and kept track of the budget. In
many instances, the name of the architect is not even known.
Only later, during the Hellenistic Period from the fourth cen-
tury into the fi rst century b.c.e., did architects come to be
thought of as artists in their own right.THE ROOTS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Th e ruins that survive date primarily from the late Classical
and the Hellenistic periods of Greek culture. Historians cite
the Persian Wars (480–448 b.c.e.) as the beginning of the
Classical Period of Greek art, which extended to the death
of Alexander the Great in 323 b.c.e. Th e Hellenistic Period
began with Alexander’s death and extended to about the
fi rst century b.c.e. Like Greek civilization generally, though,
Greek architecture did not spring out of nowhere. The
centuries before the Classical Period are called the Archaicarchitecture: Greece 73