▶ seafaring and navigation
introduction
Seafaring has always been a dangerous business, and it was no
less so in the ancient world. Th e fact that ancient civilizations
took to the sea despite the dangers of storm, shipwreck, and
piracy is testimony to their courage and unquenchable desire
to explore the world that surrounded them. Ancient seafar-
ers faced a number of obstacles. One was a lack of naviga-
tional tools. More modern seafarers had sextants, compasses,
chronometers, and other implements that enabled them to
fi x their position at sea and determine their direction and
speed. Ancient civilizations did not have these tools, though
one tool, which was found off the coast of a Greek island and
dated from about the fi rst century b.c.e., may have been used
for navigational purposes. Otherwise, seafarers learned to
navigate using the sun and star constellations, water currents,
and the movements of birds and marine animals, and they
passed their knowledge along orally.
Few ancient seafarers, however, took to the open sea, al-
though ancient whalers and fi shermen sometimes traveled far
from land in search of their prey. For the most part, ancient
seafarers tended to follow coastlines. Th ey could use moun-
tains visible from sea to maintain their course, and by staying
close to the land they could fi nd refuge during storms as well
as put in for fresh water and provisions. Th e ancient Greeks
and Romans navigated the coastlines of the Mediterranean
Sea; seafarers from the Near East and Middle East navigated
the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and other bodies of water in
the region; and the ancient Chinese, with their large fl eet of
massive ships, explored the coastline of China and the areas
around Japan and Korea. Ancient Americans and Asians of
the South Pacifi c, much like the ancient Greeks, took to the
sea to hop from island to island.
Another constant danger was storms and shipwrecks. In
general, ancient seafarers kept to the land during the spring
and autumn, when storms were more prevalent. Nonetheless,
many ancient ships were caught in storms at sea and went
down, oft en carrying valuable cargo with them. Because most
of these shipwrecks occurred in deep water, and because wa-
ter is not kind to the wood from which ships were made, rela-
tively few ancient shipwrecks have been located. Th e lack of
harbors was also a problem, but ancient seafarers learned to
make use of natural harbors to escape storms when possible.
Ancient ships lacked artifi cial sources of power, so sea-
farers relied on river currents, the power of the wind, or the
backs and arms of rowers. Sails were typically square, making
them useful when the wind was at the ship’s back but of little
use when a ship was sailing into the wind. Most ancient ships
made use of rowers. Th e so-called triremes, used by the an-
cient Romans, were ships that were powered by three rows of
rowers. Some ships had up to 10 such rows. Rowers were able
to power ships when the wind was not favorable or when the
ship needed a burst of speed and maneuverability, as during
naval battles.AFRICA
BY MARK ANTHONY PHELPS
People from the western Mediterranean and Atlantic regions
were engaged in trade with the Phoenicians, based in modern
Syria and Lebanon, since at least the ninth century, despite
the claim of classical authors who placed colonization of the
Atlantic coast in the 12th century. On or near the Atlantic
coast from Morocco to Senegal lie 13 Phoenician or Carthag-
inian sites. It is generally not possible to attribute colonies to
either, as the distinction between the two centers of Semitic
seafaring civilization was blurred by ancient authors. Like-
wise, technology bearing the label “Phoenician” by ancient
authors could have denoted Carthaginian developments as
well. One will recall that the wars with Carthage are known
to the Romans as the Punic Wars, as Punic is derived from the
Greek word for the Phoenicians. (Th e English term is likewise
derived from the Greek root.)
Colonies served a variety of economic purposes. Primar-
ily they served to protect Phoenician and Carthaginian (the
latter are also known as Punic) vessels. Th is was accomplished
by using their own navies as defense against pirates and other
potential enemies and providing safe haven for endangered
ships. Th is ensured that Phoenician and Carthaginian ships
would have access to the resources of the western Mediter-
ranean and Atlantic to themselves. Th ese ports also were out-
lets for their own economic production, both from the cities
and the hinterlands. Th e ports provided repairs for ships and
resupplied provisions for ships continuing on their circuits.
Navigation in the Mediterranean was a skill acquired by
experience. An intimate knowledge of nature was a requisite
for sailing in antiquity. Navigation at night, which tended to
be rare, was done by fi xing points in relation to stars. Ursa
Major was known as the “Phoenician star” because it served
as their prime orientation point. Th e sun, by contrast, is a
relative guide, moving as the seasons progress.
Understanding winds was important to navigation. Th e
Phoenicians or Carthaginians invented the wind rose, a de-
vice to discern the direction of winds. Winds possessed dis-
cernable features to the trained observer. By the fi rst century
c.e. Greek sailors were aware of eight distinct winds. Winds
were valuable for determining direction and predicting com-
ing danger in the form of storms. Storms and unpredictable
winds limited most commercial sailing in the Mediterranean
to the months between March and October. Warships pa-
trolled all year long.
Birds were of value in determining distance and direc-
tion of land. Land-based birds released from a ship would el-
evate to locate land and head directly toward it. Likewise, an
awareness of the fl ight patterns of fl ocks of birds could help
one discern direction or nearby landfall.
Naturally, the easiest way to navigate distance was to be
in sight of land. Th is was probably the method employed by
the Phoenicians and Carthaginians along the Atlantic coast
of Africa and nearby islands. For Greek and Roman sailors,952 seafaring and navigation: introduction0895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i952 952 10/10/07 2:30:32 PM