Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World

heads found rooted into the hull may suggest that a ship had

been attacked. Th e use of oars provided speed and fl exibility.

Single steering oars are seen depicted on the frescoes from

Th era as early as the 16th century b.c.e. and double steering

oars from the sixth century b.c.e. Th e oars were important to

ships in helping them maneuver around islands, keeping close

to the coast. Oars were used to propel a ship when there was

not enough wind. For vessels such as warships, oars could also

provide a valuable means of gaining speed during battle with

an enemy. Several rows of oars could be used to give the ship

additional pace. According to the Greek historian Th ucydides

(d. ca. 401 b.c.e.), triremes (ships with three rows of oars) were

the invention of boat builders from Corinth around 700 b.c.e.

Later the kingdoms of the Hellenistic Period (323–31 b.c.e.)

would have tens of rows of oarsmen. Th ese ships required ex-

tensive manpower and coordination.

Th e ancient Greeks would have used a square sail when

traveling by sea. A single square sail could be eff ective in heavy

seas. However, it was not very adaptable when the wind was

blowing against the course of a ship. Th e settlement of Troy

was situated on the Dardanelles. As it was a protected har-

bor, it became prosperous, since ships would oft en stay there

while they waited for the direction of the wind to change so

that they could move through the Dardanelles and into the

Black Sea. Numerous images of square sails on ships have

been found. For example, Attic black-fi gure pottery dating to

the mid-sixth century b.c.e. depicts ships with square sails.

Only small amounts of evidence for nautical guides have

survived; it may be that sailors passed on their expertise orally.

Even as the Roman Empire came to dominate Greece and the

Mediterranean, ships still needed to be maneuvered with pre-

cision and accuracy. Watching out for changes in the weather

and the sea, keeping a close eye for land, and observing the

stars and the sun required an understanding and familiarity

that were essential throughout the whole of this period. Sail-

ors needed to maintain total concentration to navigate their

ships safely and to watch out for any possible dangers.

ROME

BY JAMES A. CORRICK

Th e fastest method of transporting freight and passengers

during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was by

sea. With the exception of some swift naval vessels, Roman

ships averaged 6 knots, a knot being 6,076 feet per hour, and

thus they moved along at about 7 miles per hour. A ship, for

example, took one to two days to travel from the Roman port

of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber River, to Massalia (present-

day Marseilles in southern France). By land the same journey

took weeks. Business travelers, government offi cials, tourists,

and others journeying long distances consequently sought

passage via ship.

Despite a healthy passenger trade, no passenger ships

existed in the Roman world. Instead, voyagers had to travel

on merchant vessels. Nothing except drinking water was

provided to passengers, who had to bring their own food,

cooking utensils, beds, and servants. Travelers slept on deck

with the crew. Th e crew was generally foreign born, its mem-

bers most commonly being Greeks or Egyptians because few

Romans became sailors. Even on military ships, except for

offi cers, the crew was not Roman. Additionally, it was not un-

usual for merchant ships to be crewed entirely by slaves, one

of whom was the captain.

Without any method of weather prediction, a ship could

easily be caught in a sudden storm, and if it could not quickly

reach a safe harbor, it might well be sunk or run aground.

Because of numerous storms, few ships sailed in the winter

months, the summer being considered the best sailing time.

Another danger that Roman ships faced was attack by pirates.

Aft er seizing a vessel, the attackers either killed the crew and

Altar to the sea god Neptune, an off ering from the Roman admiral of

the British fl eet, second century c.e., from Lympne, Kent, England

(© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)

seafaring and navigation: Rome 959

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