war comes from the tomb biography of Ahmose, son of Ibana,
a military offi cer whose career spanned the reigns of three
diff erent kings of the early Eighteenth Dynasty: Ahmose I (r.
ca. 1550–1525 b.c.e.), Amenhotep I (r. 1525–1504 b.c.e.), and
Th utmose I (r. ca. 1504–ca. 1492 b.c.e.). Th e inscription indi-
cates that not only were slaves captured at war, but they also
were oft en granted to individuals who exhibited exceptional
military prowess. Detailing the conquest of the Hyksos cities
of Avaris and Sharuhen, Ahmose indicates that from the for-
mer he brought “one man, three women; total, four persons,”
and “His majesty gave them to [Ahmose] as slaves.” Ahmose
also was allowed to keep the two women he had captured at
Also Sharuhen. Ahmose’s valor was recognized by the king
and duly rewarded with gold.
While occasionally military offi cers retained their cap-
tives as slaves, such was not always the case. While fi ghting in
Nubia, Ahmose, son of Ibana, captured “two living men” but
was rewarded with “two female slaves.” On another occasion
he brought “two young warriors as captives” but was given
“fi ve persons” as a reward. In all four accounts Ahmose’s re-
ceipt of slaves was part of a greater package that showed the
king’s appreciation of his military prowess. In addition to
slaves, Ahmose was rewarded with gold, parcels of land in his
hometown, and a promotion. Th is and similar texts indicate
that prisoners of war were not limited to soldiers from the
rival army but also included the inhabitants of the captured
towns. Th e process outlined in Ahmose’s biography indicates
that Egyptian military personnel were obliged to present
their captives to the king, who became the primary owner of
these newly acquired slaves. It was the king’s prerogative to
assign captured prisoners to his offi cers, the temples, or his
own royal household. Occasionally Near Eastern slaves were
imported into Egypt.
Certain legal documents dating to the sixth century b.c.e.
indicate another source of slavery in ancient Egypt: self-en-
slavement. To satisfy a debt, not only would a debtor off er all
the property he owned, but he also could off er himself, his
family, and his children as slaves if the value of his property
was insuffi cient to repay his loan. Legal documents suggest
that debts and the inability to repay loans were the primary
motives for this t y pe of enslavement. Another source of slaves
were the children born to a slave woman. Children inherited
their mothers’ freedom status and could not become free men
or women regardless of the status of the father.
Very little information survives regarding slave trad-
ing in ancient Egypt. According to a document dating to the
eighth century b.c.e., a special tax was levied on the sale of
32 slaves. In another document 35 slaves were part of a sale
involving of some fi elds. Th is transaction took place before
the council of magistrates (the qenbet) and seems to imply
that special registers recorded transactions involving the sale
of slaves. Royalty and private individuals alike oft en handed
over slaves to the religious establishment to serve at a tem-
ple. Bequest, reassignment, acquisition, and the sale of slaves
had to be registered with the qenbet. Th e small communityof workmen at Deir el-Medina included several state-owned
and a few privately owned slaves.
Egyptian slave owners had several obligations toward
their charges, foremost among which was to legally record
the acquisition or relinquishment of slaves at the qenbet. As
soon as a slave was purchased, the owner gave the slave a
name and taught him or her a trade. A literate slave could be
promoted to the position of estate manager. Th e owners were
also responsible for the slaves’ health, making sure they were
adequately nourished and well cared for. A letter from the
Eighteenth Dynasty indicates that enslaved children could
not be given hard labor.
Egyptian slaves could enjoy a measure of freedom and
dignity. Th ey could negotiate transactions and own personal
property. For example, the Wilbour Papyrus, a document
dating to the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–ca. 1070 b.c.e.) on
which is recorded the sale of some agricultural land, lists at
least 11 slaves (hem) as holders of agricultural land. Slaves
could also testify at court. Several appear as witnesses in the
legal account of the great tomb robberies at the end of the
Twentieth Dynasty (ca. 1196–ca. 1070 b.c.e.). In fact, it was
the testimony of these slaves that later implicated their mas-
ter as the main culprit in these tomb robberies. Th e slaves
were not treated any worse than any of the other individuals
named in the document: All were made to swear to the truth,
and some were beaten to extract confessions.
Although no extant documents record marriage agree-
ments among enslaved men and women, in the New Kingdom
freed slaves could marry into high society. In one instance a
king’s barber gave his niece in marriage to his former slave,
indicating that freed slaves could marry members of their
former masters’ immediate families.THE MIDDLE EAST
BY FRANS VAN KOPPEN
Slavery in the sense of legal ownership of persons in the man-
ner of chattel was universally accepted in cultures of the an-
cient Near East, with slaves being extracted from foreign soil
but also legally drawn from among the slave owner’s fellow
citizens. Notions of race or skin color were immaterial for en-
slavement, and slavery was in eff ect the most radical form of
control over humans alongside other servile conditions that
did not constitute full ownership. Slave labor was in demand
at wealthy urban households but was economically less im-
portant in the ancient Near East than in the Mediterranean
world of classical antiquity.
Ancient slavery and the livelihood of slaves have been
studied on the basis of literary texts and law codes, including
the legal parts of the Old Testament and numerous archival
sources in cuneiform script. Th e terms for slaves in many of
the region’s languages primarily connote social status and
could be used for any socially inferior individual. Th is am-
biguity means that it is sometimes diffi cult to distinguish
slaves from other people who endured exploitation withinslaves and slavery: The Middle East 9870895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i987 987 10/10/07 2:30:40 PM