of Japan, the Philippines, and other island cultures, that it is
possible that there were places where slaves were unknown.
In China the earliest details for slavery come late in its
history, from the Han Dynasty (202 b.c.e.–220 c.e.). During
the Han Dynasty slaves, tradespeople, and merchants were le-
gally nonpersons, ranking lower in importance to peasants,
government offi cials, professional warriors, nobility, and roy-
alty. Writers during the Han Dynasty oft en noted, however,
that slaves lived better than peasants. Th e generally cruel con-
ditions for peasants during the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–ca.
1045 b.c.e.) and the Zhou Dynasty (ca. 1045–256 b.c.e.) have
led some historians to refer to ancient China having a “slave
economy” similar to that of ancient Rome, but the actual status
of peasants probably put them outside the realm of slavery.
Peasants would sometimes borrow money they could not
repay, and the lender could take over their land and require
that they work it. Nobles and rich merchants could gather
land to themselves this way, and the peasants would work for
them with little hope of ever owning land again. Emperors
occasionally tried redistribute land to the peasants, but the
nobility would just start reacquiring the land. Nonetheless,
in times of crisis peasants ranked higher in China’s priori-
ties than anyone except the nobility and royalty. It seems that
the Chinese government, from the era of the Shang on, rec-
ognized that peasants were essential to the nation’s survival,
and governments usually tried to see to it that peasants were
cared for.
Slaves primarily served in households. Rarely did slaves
work on farms. Th e proportion of slaves to the general popu-
lation was always small, perhaps less than 1 percent of the
people. Th e proportion may have seemed higher to people liv-
ing in cit ies because most slaves lived in cit ies or tow ns, where
they served in the households of nobles and wealthy people.
Relatives of convicted criminals were oft en enslaved by
the government. Government-owned slaves worked to haul
barges up and down rivers. Th ey cared for the emperor’s
horses and dogs and worked as gamekeepers in government
parks, especially those used by royalty. In the emperor’s court
they kept track of water clocks and banged drums to mark
the hours of the day, they waited on guests and the royal fam-
ily, and they opened and closed doors for people walking
through the palaces. Th ese duties were fulfi lled by both men
and women.
During hard times peasants sometimes killed their chil-
dren because they could not feed them, and they sometimes
sold their children into slavery in exchange for money. Others
sold themselves into slavery to have food to eat or a place to
live. Some merchants traded in slaves even though the gov-
ernment disapproved of the practice. A few emperors tried to
abolish the slave trade but failed.
Privately owned slaves were house cleaners, cooks, and
kitchen staff. Some were used as bodyguards or to guard an-
cestral cemeteries. Others waited on their masters or mis-
tresses, helping with hairdressing and other cosmetic tasks.
Skilled slaves made ceramics and fabrics for sale. Some own-ers used slaves to form gangs to batter or even kill their ene-
mies, terrorizing a town or city. Both government-owned and
privately owned slaves were sometimes given confi dential
tasks such as bookkeeping and carrying messages.
It was possible for slaves to earn their own money, but in
general a slave was a slave for life, without being able to buy
freedom. Slaves typically were regarded as lazy and greedy,
and many free people resented that slaves were able to earn
their own money, especially when ordinary people had to
work to survive while slaves had food and housing even when
they did no work.
A similar resentment prevailed in India, where slaves
were oft en regarded as lazy and insolent. As sometimes hap-
pened in China, people without fi nancial resources would
sell themselves into slavery to have food or a place to live.
Th ey oft en received cash from their new owners, and they
were allowed to live freely until the money ran out, at which
time they had to work for their owners. Th ey lived much like
members of the Sudra caste, as laborers and servants. Th ey
were rarely Brahmans (members of the highest Hindu caste)
because people were expected to give food and other goods to
Brahmans without getting anything in return.
Hindu religious law forbade the mistreatment of slaves.
An owner was expected to feed slaves well, to provide them
with good clothing, and to give them good quarters in which
to live. A slave could be beaten in certain cases, but only on
the back. A pious owner would treat his or her slaves well. Un-
der law, slaves were allowed to try to escape once; if they were
successful, they were allowed to rejoin their caste. Th e reality
of slave life was oft en very diff erent from what was required
by religious law. Slaves were beaten, maimed, and killed. Any
slight to their owners could occasion their torture or death,
and their lives were constantly beset by terror.
Th e royal governments oft en imported slaves. Both men
and women imported from Greece served as palace guards.
Women oft en protected the king’s harem of concubines, and
sometimes the imported female slaves were themselves made
concubines. People could become slaves when they were pris-
oners of war, but they served only one year of involuntary ser-
vitude and were then freed. People convicted of crimes could
be sentenced to serve as slaves for a certain time, but they were
freed when the time ended. Others who lost lawsuits or bets
could become slaves, but they were freed if they paid the fi ne
or bet. Still others became slaves to their creditors when they
failed to pay their debts, and they were freed if they managed
to pay what they owed. Th ose who sold themselves into slav-
ery had to buy their freedom. In many cases people remained
slaves for life, and children born to them were also slaves.
For many slaves life was one of hard labor. Th ey were
expected to haul water from a nearby stream or lake regard-
less of the weather, to carry loads of goods, and to maintain
the homes of their owners. Owners oft en complained of their
slaves’ laziness, noting that their slaves tended to watch for
sundown, when their labors for the day were supposed to end,
rather than attending to their chores. Others complained thatslaves and slavery: Asia and the Pacific 9890895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i989 989 10/10/07 2:30:40 PM