hot air was directed into the open space. Public and private
baths alike were usually sumptuously decorated with multi-
colored marble revetments, elaborate mosaics, and statuary.
A Roman bath should not be confused with a latrine; these
public restrooms were situated in many parts of a city and
were not always associated with a bath building.
While both Greek and Roman theaters were used for
theatrical performances, they were very diff erent in design.
Greek theaters were typically cut into a hillside to accommo-
date the sloped seating area; Roman ones were freestanding,
thanks to the use of concrete vaulting. Th e earliest Roman
theaters were only temporary, erected for religious festivals.
Th ese short-lived structures, however, could be quite elabo-
rate, like the one erected by Marcus Aemilius Scaurus in 58
b.c.e. Although it was dismantled aft er a month of use, it
could hold 80,000 spectators and was made of at least two
kinds of marble. Roman theaters resembled Greek theaters
with their tiered seating, but they had a semicircular orches-
tra (the place where the actors stood) instead of a circular one.
Th e stage building behind the orchestra and facing the audi-
ence in a Roman theater was usually elaborately decorated
with columns and statues in niches. Th e theaters at Orange
in France and Mérida in Spain are very well preserved and
represent the standard type of Roman theater.
architecture
Ancient Roman homes were almost as varied as modern
dwellings. Some members of the lower classes lived in a sin-
gle room or a dimly lit apartment in an insula, an apartment
building. Th e wealthiest Romans enjoyed vast estates with
many diff erent types of structures as well as fountains, gar-
dens, and bath suites. Much of the city-dwelling population
lived in a domus-style (single family) house, of which Pompeii
gives us many examples. In middle- and upper-class houses
decoration played a signifi cant role, and frescoes, statuettes in
marble and bronze, and mosaics frequently created a sump-
tuous atmosphere.
Th e domus was very popular in Roman Italy but less so
in the provinces. Vitruvius describes the origins of the do-
mus as well as its typical plan and types of rooms. Th e domus
probably grew out of the designs of Etruscan homes, but Ro-
man architects experimented with new and borrowed forms,
elaborating on the earlier forms. Domus structures were like
modern townhouses in that groups of these homes could oc-
cupy an entire city block, and they shared walls. Th ere was
a strong focus on the interior of the house, as few windows
could be opened up to the exterior. Th e circulation of light
and air was a major concern for the designers of the domus,
and the houses incorporated a number of innovative fea-
tures that allowed for the illumination and ventilation of
interior spaces. Since artifi cial lighting in the ancient world
was largely created by the use of oil lamps with open fl ames,
many architects attempted to bring as much natural light into
the house as possible, for fi res were frequent and could be
devastating in densely populated cities. Elaborate wall paint-
ings enlivened the interiors of these buildings with images
from classical mythology, landscapes, cityscapes, or imita-
tions of marble revetments. Floor mosaics, either patterned
or with fi gural scenes, also adorned Roman homes. Th e do-
mus frequently had more than one story, as evidence from
Pompeii and Herculaneum demonstrates.
A typical domus was entered through a narrow doorway
followed by a hall called a fauces (Latin for “throat” or “jaws”).
Once in the fauces, a visitor was oft en presented with an axial
view through the house. Many homes in Pompeii and Hercu-
laneum preserve this vista from the front door through rooms
called an atrium and a tablinum and on toward a garden in
the rear of the house. Th e atrium was an important room,
used for the display of portraits of family members and the
reception of guests. A rectangular opening in the roof of the
atrium—a compluvium—admitted light into the house and
directed rainwater to a shallow pool (impluvium) below. Th e
rainwater could be stored in an underground tank and used
for cooking and cleaning. Although allowing rain into the
home seems strange, it was essential in a time when indoor
plumbing was rare or nonexistent. (Eventually many Roman
cities came to have quite sophisticated water systems that al-
lowed for running water in private homes.)
Four to six small bedrooms called cubicula opened into
the atrium from the sides. Alae (Latin for “wings”) were open
rooms off the atrium that had a number of purposes, fre-
quently serving as storage or work spaces. At the far end of
the atrium was the tablinum that could be likened to a “home
offi ce,” where the head of the household met with colleagues
and clients. Beyond the tablinum was the more private area of
the home, which frequently included a porticoed landscaped
garden with statuary and fountains as well as a triclinium, or
dining room. Th e triclinium takes its name from the Greek
words meaning “three couches,” referring to the ancient use
of couches, instead of chairs, for dining. Th e rooms beyond
the tablinum functioned as reception and entertainment
areas for guests. A Roman domus usually had a very small
kitchen (sometimes with an adjacent latrine) with wood-fi red
stoves and braziers (a type of grill). Vitruvius describes a sym-
metrical and axial domus, but a great number of variations on
this plan exist, demonstrating a variety of personal needs and
tastes of the homeowners. Th e use of a peristyle—a garden
surrounded by columns—as well as beautiful decoration in-
spired by more ancient works of art are two examples of the
Greek infl uence on Roman domestic architecture, alluding to
the highly decorated public spaces of Greek cities.
Although many Romans must have enjoyed the relative
luxury of living in a beautifully decorated and spacious do-
mus, the vast majority of urban residents lived in an insula.
Th ese multistoried structures were prevalent in large and
densely populated cities like Rome and Ostia. Insulae were
usually about four stories high, opened on to a multifunction-
al courtyard, and comprised individual units that were rent-
ed by the residents. Th e Insula of Diana at Ostia (built around
150 c.e.) is an interesting example of this building type; thearchitecture: Rome 81