Cities were designed to favor pedestrians. Th ere were
sidewalks, and cities oft en had laws requiring people who
owned property next to a sidewalk to provide awnings that
protected pedestrians from the sun and rain. Crosswalks
consisted of large fl at stones laid a step apart across streets.
Cart and carriage drivers had to guide the wheels of their
vehicles slowly between the stones. Streets were oft en full of
people, further slowing wheeled traffi c. Wealthy people rode
in palanquins, using them like battering rams to force their
way through streets. Th e palanquin was adopted from the
Near East and consisted of an enclosed carriage body on two
poles. Th e poles were carried on the shoulders of four or more
slaves or servants. In large cities it was common to see these
palanquins and their bearers marching through crowds, their
passengers hidden behind drawn curtains. Palanquins were
oft en marked with the symbols of their owners and would
be followed by clients of the owners, hoping for a handout
whenever the palanquins stopped.
Th e Romans were probably the greatest road builders
of the ancient world. Not only were their city streets paved
and well maintained but so were the roads and highways that
connected the regions of the empire. Such roads had advan-
tages for commerce, and entrepreneurs established carriageservices for transporting passengers in cities and around the
countryside. A common sight was the raeda, a four-wheeled
cart that was large enough to hold several passengers. It was
heavy, slow, and diffi cult to maneuver, but Roman engineers
tried to lay out roads as straight as possible, which mini-
mized the number of turns a vehicle would need to make if it
stayed on a main road without making detours. Th ere were
lighter carts that also carried passengers. Lighter carriage
bodies and light, spoked wheels meant that every bump in
the road was felt, but with spoked wheels and teams of four
horses drawing them, light carriages could cover as much
as a hundred miles a day on Roman-built roads. Sometimes
Romans chose to ride in a light, two-wheeled carriage called
a cisium, which could function like a taxicab. Many Romans
chose to ride horseback when traveling. Inns and even whole
villages arose along major thoroughfares to provide services
for all kinds of freight and passengers, with cartwrights and
stables available.
Th e lightest cart, the birota, could carry about 150
pounds, and the heaviest, the angaria, could carry about
1,100 pounds. Neither was well suited for carrying the monu-
mental stones that the Romans used for building. Such stones
were oft en fi tted with posts in their sides on which wheels
were placed, and the whole was towed as if it were a huge
cart. Liquids were transported in wooden barrels seated in
wheeled frames. For pulling their carts, Romans used oxen,
mules, and horses. Th ey lacked an effi cient towing harness for
horses, which limited horses to light carts and chariots. Oxen
were common throughout the empire, although mules seem
to have been favored in dry areas because they could better
tolerate hot, dry conditions. Pack mules were extensively used
for carrying goods in bad weather and on narrow paths.
For moving heavy goods, Romans preferred watercraft
whenever they could avail themselves of them. Although
they occasionally built canals in Europe, by and large they
relied on existing waterways. For instance, the city of Rome
itself depended on the Tiber River. Ships laden with grain and
other goods from North Africa would dock at the nearby port
city of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, where cargo would
be transferred either to barges or to land transportation. Th e
barges were hauled upstream by slaves pulling thick, heavy
ropes along the riverbank.
Horses were favored by Romans for pulling chariots and
other light vehicles. Horses oft en worked in teams of four not
only in chariot races but also in pulling transport vehicles
outside cities. Individual riders rode horses for hunting as
well as for travel. Romans began using spurs and riding boots
in the 300s b.c.e. Th ey also invented horseshoes. Th e fi rst was
the hipposandal, which consisted of an iron plate tied to the
hoof with leather strips. Th ey eventually developed a horse-
shoe made of iron that was nailed to the underside of the hoof,
much like that used today. Th e padded saddle was introduced
only late in the empire, in the 300s c.e., and was marketed to
riders by Roman merchants as a way to reduce the possibility
of getting hemorrhoids.Chariot with horse and rider, from a sarcophagus at Heraklion
(Alison Frantz Photographic Collection, American School of Classical
Studies at Athens)transportation: Rome 11190895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1119 1119 10/10/07 2:31:09 PM