by cavalry and infantry in the shape of a lotus fl ower, protect-
ing the archers. If enemy troops managed to force their way
into the area between the “petals” of the fl ower, the two pet-
als would swing together, crushing the troops between them.
Th e garuda formation featured elephants and the most skilled
archers at the “beak,” archers who were almost as good at the
“head,” “wings” of swift cavalry and infantry troops, and a
“body” of reserves behind.KOREA
Like China and India, Korea consisted of a number of city-
states, except that the number was much smaller, refl ecting the
small size of the Korean peninsula. During the fi rst millen-
nium b.c.e., the three city-states that dominated were Kogu-
ryo Paekche, and Silla, though other minor city-states existed
as well. Within each of these city-states were several groups.
Historically, these city-states have been called the Th ree King-
doms, and the Th ree Kingdoms Period extended from the fi rst
century b.c.e. to 668 c.e., when Silla defeated Koguryo.
Militarily, the most powerful and dominant of the king-
doms was the Koguryo (the name from which Korea evolved).
Beginning in 37 b.c.e. and into the fi rst centuries of the Com-
mon Era a succession of monarchs united the kingdom, ex-
tended the kingdom’s boundaries and, in particular, resisted
the Chinese. During the reign of Taejo (53–146 c.e.) the Ko-
reans mounted a number of well-conceived attacks on the
Chinese garrisons at Lolang, Xiantu, and Liaodong. Th eir ef-
forts were successful, and Koguryo became entirely indepen-
dent. Th e regime also launched attacks against smaller states
to absorb them. Later, under King Gwanggaeto the Great,
who reigned from 391 to 412 c.e., the kingdom further ex-
panded its territories through military conquest; in fact, the
king’s name means “great expander of territory.” His army
conquered at least 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages against
a group called the Buyeo. He subdued additional peoples, an-
nexed portions of the peninsula, conquered Silla, and waged
war against Japan. Th e result of his eff orts and those of his son
was to turn Korea into a unifi ed country for some 50 years.
Less is known about the tactics and organization of an-
cient Korean armies. Although there was a measure of inter-
nal warfare, Korea did not engage in extensive armed confl ict
with neighbors, and weapons technology was not as highly ad-
vanced as it was among the Chinese. In general, Koreans fought
using farm implements and other common objects. Among
them were the ji pang e, a cane; the jang bond, or long staff ;
the jung bong, a staff of middle length; the tahn bong, or short
stick; the jang tan-do, or long dagger; and the nat, or sickle.
Koreans, though, did not carry these simple weapons into bat-
tle without training. Martial-arts training provided warriors
with the skills the needed, including the hyungs, or patterns,
to turn these objects into lethal weapons. Accompanying this
was training in hand-to-hand combat. Many of these Korean
martial arts continue to be taught in the modern world.
Th e ancient Koreans, especially those in the kingdom
of Silla, maintained a strong warrior class. Boys and youngmen were sent to schools that emphasized training in mili-
tary tactics and the use of weapons, and the most promising
ones were given further training and became members of the
warrior class.JAPAN
Warfare was infrequent during the Jōmon Period, the earliest
period of Japanese history, which began about 13,000 b.c.e.
and extended to about 300 b.c.e. During the fourth and third
centuries b.c.e. waves of immigrants from Korea and China
changed the fundamental makeup of Japan. From about 300
b.c.e. to 300 c.e. the Yayoi Period of Japanese history (named
aft er the modern Tokyo suburb in which archaeological re-
mains of the culture were found in the 19th century) was
marked by the introduction of metal weapons and the rise of
an aristocratic warrior class. Most of the warfare in which Ja-
pan took part was internal. Japan at the time was not a unifi ed
nation-state but a collection of villages and small cities. Japan
was an agricultural society, and imbalances in the produc-
tivity of its numerous communities led to confl ict. Th e basic
unit of society was the clan (uji), and each clan, led by a noble,
fi elded an army to defend its interests. Th is emphasis on an
aristocratic warrior class continued into the Yamato Period
that followed the Yayoi. Th e Yamato emperors continued the
process of subduing groups and even attacked part of Korea
in 391 c.e. Th e pattern, then, was similar to those of China,
India, and Korea, as small kingdoms warred with each other
over resources and in the attempt to forge a larger kingdom.
Little is known about ancient Japanese battle tactics or
military organization. It is known that some warriors fought
on horseback, but most were foot soldiers. Th e archaeological
record shows arrow points, swords, knives, and axes made of
iron. Bronze weapons included halberds, swords, and spears.
Because ancient Japanese society was feudal and clan based,
no nation-state mounted a centralized army; rather, military
forces were small, and their members consisted of the men
that the feudal overlord could press into service.OCEANIA
Social organization throughout Oceania, including Micro-
nesia, New Guinea, and Australia, was highly fragmented
in ancient times. None of these peoples built an empire or
even a nation. Th e basic unit of organization was the tribe.
Tribes were typically run by a “big man,” the tribal leader.
Geographically, the unit of organization was the island or, on
larger islands, the village. Sometimes primitive warfare broke
out as populations grew and tribes competed for resources;
at times they resorted to cannibalism. Also, population pres-
sures oft en forced islanders to leave to fi nd new lands.EUROPE
BY KIRK H. BEETZ
Violence was a large part of life in ancient Europe. Evidence
of interpersonal violence fi rst appears in the Mesolithic Pe-1140 war and conquest: Europe0895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1140 1140 10/10/07 2:31:13 PM