to strengthen the shield and to aid in warding off blows. Th is
type of shield fi rst appeared in Italy in the mid-eighth cen-
tury b.c.e. and eventually became the standard Roman heavy
infantry shield with some modifi cations until the end of the
ancient world.
Th e early Roman army fought in the manner of the
Greek phalanx as a dense rectangular formation that relied
on its weight and the points of its heavy thrusting spears to
achieve victory on the battlefi eld. During the fourth or per-
haps as late as the early third century b.c.e. the Roman army
underwent a tactical revolution. In place of the phalanx it
adopted a three-line formation, which depended not on the
heavy thrusting spear but on a combination of javelin and
sword for its off ensive power. Th e front two lines carried two
javelins, called pila, one heavy and one light. Th e heavy pilum
weighed about 10 pounds, and the lighter one was about half
that weight; both were about 6 feet long. Th e barbed spear-
head and its metal tang were made as a single piece, and the
head was attached to its wooden shaft by driving the tang into
it. Th e sword that eventually became standard was a short
sword with a blade, approximately 2 feet long, with two cut-
ting edges and a long, sharp point. It was well adapted for
both slashing and stabbing strokes. Th e third line retained
the heavy thrusting spear.
Th e legionnaire was protected by a bowl-shaped metal
helmet of bronze with a short neck guard at the rear and
attached cheek pieces. His chest was protected by a small
square metal pale held on by straps and worn over a leather
tunic. Wealthier legionnaires provided themselves with a
mail shirt. A greave (shin armor) was worn on the left leg,
which was thrust forward in combat.
Each legion also contained light-armed troops. Th ey
were equipped with a light wicker shield 3 feet in diameter
and a leather helmet; they carried the legionary sword and a
number of light javelins. Little is known about Roman cavalry
equipment during the republic. Th e cavalry probably carried
a round shield, wore some form of chest protection, and car-
ried a lance and a sword. Although there was some variation
in equipment down to the end of the fi rst century b.c.e., the
only major change was the standardization of off ensive weap-
onry for all legionnaires.
For the fi rst two centuries of the empire until 200 c.e.,
changes in legionary equipment were evolutionary. From the
middle of the fi rst century c.e. the sword point was short-
ened to make it more eff ective in stabbing, and helmets
evolved to provide increased protection for the nape of the
neck and the forehead. Toward the end of the second cen-
tury c.e. a longer sword with a blade of between 32 and 40
inches appeared and eventually replaced the traditional le-
gionary sword. Th e most striking change was visible in chest
protection. Several types appeared. Th e mail shirt was now
standard for legionnaires, with scale armor also found. A
new type of body armor was developed, consisting of metal
strips attached to leather straps for both the chest and the
back; this new armor was more fl exible and provided greaterprotection against blows. Th e scutum, though constructed
in the same way, now became rectangular instead of oval to
increase the protection it off ered.
Th ere appears to have been a tremendous variety in
the body armor of the Roman cavalry of this period. Mail
shirts frequently appear in pictorial representations, but
other types of cuirasses are also found. Helmets display a
similar diversity. Off ensive weapons also varied greatly, as
many units were highly specialized, such as archers from
the eastern provinces. One striking development beginning
in the mid-second century c.e. was the appearance of a new
type of cavalry patterned on eastern models. Th ese were the
Clibanarii, who wore a tight-fi tting conical iron cap and a
coat of either mail or scale armor, which covered the up-
per body and the thighs; the lower body was protected by
metal bands. Th is cavalryman’s main off ensive weapon was
a heavy lance.
Artillery was used in siege and naval warfare and on the
battlefi eld. Roman artillery evolved from Greek models. Its
propulsive force was supplied by torsion, that is, the build-
ing up of energy in some elastic material, such as braided
ropes of hair or animal sinew, by twisting them and then
suddenly releasing them. Th ese devices were generally con-
structed of wood, though in the Imperial Period there was
a greater use of metal for increased strength and durability.
Th ese machines varied in size and were used to propel ei-
ther arrow-shaped projectiles or large stone balls. Th e larger
catapults were could hurl stones of up to 60 pounds with
devastating results.Sixteenth-century shield depicting Roman battle scene; the scene shows
accurate armor and clothing of the time, as drawn from antique coins
and sculpture. (Copyright the Metropolitan Museum of Art)1170 weaponry and armor: Rome0895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1170 1170 10/10/07 2:31:19 PM