Writing was important for offi cial and military communica-
tion throughout the vast empire. One of the most important
archaeological fi nds pertaining to ancient Rome’s written
communications with its colonies are the so-called Vindol-
anda tablets, found at the site of the Vindolanda fortress near
Hadrian’s Wall in ancient Britain and now housed at the
London Museum. When Christianity, based in Rome, spread
in the vacuum left by the collapse of the Roman Empire, it
continued to use the Roman alphabet, making the alphabet a
fi xture of Western life.
Th e alphabet the ancient Romans used to write Latin con-
sisted of 23 letters. Th e letters J, U, and W were added later, J
as a variant of I; U as a variant of V; and W, or double V, added
to distinguish the sounds of W and V. Also, the ancient Ro-
mans used the letters K, Y, and Z only in transcribing Greek
words. Th e ancient Roman alphabet comprised only capital
letters. Most look similar to modern-day letters, although be-
cause of the nature of ancient writing tools many, such as B,
D, and P, had an angular rather than rounded look.
In ancient Rome children learned to write using boards
covered with wax. Th ey wrote in the wax using a stylus—a
pointed metal tool similar to a pen—and could rub out what
they had written with the fl at end of the stylus. In this re-
spect tools for teaching writing were similar to the modern
blackboard or ink board. Otherwise, documents were writ-
ten on wax tablets or very thin pieces of wood. Th e wax was
poured into hollowed-out slabs of wood or sometimes into
bronze frames. People who wrote letters oft en used wax tab-
lets made of wood or ivor y, which were then tied together and
sent in a box called a seal box. More important documents,
such as legal contracts, government proclamations, and such,
were written with pen and ink on papyrus, a kind of paper
extracted from the pith of the papyrus plant and then pressed
into a fl at material to write on. Because this stiff material
could not be folded, documents were stored and transmit-
ted in the form of rolled-up scrolls. Parchment—made from
the skins of domesticated animals like sheep and goats—was
also used as an early form of paper. Ink was made from vari-
ous substances, including charcoal, soot, and gum. It is un-
clear what was used to bind these materials together, though
vinegar may have been used. Other ink ingredients included
copper, burnt resin, various minerals, and glues made from
remains of animals such as oxen.
Ancient Roman books were nearly always preserved in
the form of scrolls, formed by attaching single pieces of pa-
pyrus into long, continuous texts. A reader moved on to a
new page by rolling it out and then rolling up the part that
had already been read. Th e chief disadvantage of scrolls was
that it was diffi cult for the reader to browse or go back to an
earlier page; the entire scroll had to be unrolled and rolled up.
In about the fi rst century of the Common Era the Romans
invented the book, using fl at sheets that were sewn together.
Th is type of book, called a codex, made storage much easier.
Scrolls had to be stored in boxes or baskets, whereas fl at books
could be arranged on shelves.Ancient Rome produced a large number of writers, many
of whose works continue to be read for their insights into
art, philosophy, history, politics, religion, and other areas
of thought. Th ese works were some of the highest cultural
achievements of the Roman Empire. But much writing, too,
survives in the form of tomb inscriptions, inscriptions on
the walls or capitals of monumental buildings, and even in
the form of graffi ti, a word that comes from the Italian for
“scratch,” as in scratching an inscription on a wall or other
surface. Th e ancient Romans were lovers of graffi ti, even on
the walls of their homes. Many poets enjoyed writing epi-
grams, or short, pithy sayings, on walls.
Th e ancient Romans carried the writing of personal let-
ters to great heights. Roman letters were highly stylized, with
a system of abbreviations used in the salutation and closing,
initials similar to the kind of abbreviations used in modern e-
mail communications. Th us, for example, S.P.D. stood for sa-
lutem pluriman dicit, or “sends very fond greeting.” Because
Rome had no postal system, wealthy letter writers hired mes-
sengers to deliver letters, oft en at great distances. One con-
cern was that a letter intended as a personal communication
might go astray and be revealed to a larger public. For this
reason, Roman letter writers devoted considerable attention
to the literary style of their letters in an attempt to avoid em-
barrassment if someone other than the addressee read them.
Sometimes recipients of letters replied by writing notes in the
margins of letters they received. Also, because of the danger
that letters and other documents might be lost or missent,
copies were generally made and kept. In the case of offi cial
documents a class of scribes and copyists did the work. ItPottery inkwell from Roman Britain, inscribed with its owner’s name,
Iucundus (dating to fi rst to third centuries c.e.) (© Th e Trustees of the
British Museum)writing: Rome 11910895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1191 1191 10/10/07 2:31:24 PM