hances the sculpture, creating a sense that the fi gure, with its
intricately carved robes, is almost fl oating in space.
Th e sculptors of the Hellenistic Period retained the earlier
interest in fi gures of gods and goddesses, but they also turned
to more human themes, giving their fi gures a mysterious
smile or an expression of surprise. Many of the statues from
this period are erotic and sensual. Common fi gures included
Aphrodite, the goddess of love, beauty, and sexual passion
(known in Roman mythology as Venus); Pan, the half-man,
half-goat god of the woods who, according to myth, had af-
fairs with many nymphs; and various satyrs (any god of the
woods noted for love of unrestrained revelry). Among this
type of sculpture is the famous Venus de Milo, is an 80-inch-
high marble sculpture once thought to have been created by
Praxiteles but now believed to have been created by Alexan-
dros of Antioch sometime around 130–90 b.c.e. Although
the statue’s arms are missing, visitors to the Louvre in Paris
continue to be amazed by the beauty of the fi gure depicted,
with its perfect proportions and the Praxitelean curve.
COINS
Although coins are not typically thought of as “art,” art
historians take an interest in ancient Greek coinage for two
reasons. One is that a large number of coins survive from
the period, so they are available for study. Th e other is that
Greek artisans exhibited considerable skill in craft ing coins,
giving art historians insight into Greek craft smanship and
aesthetics—particularly because coins were made by hand
one at a time.
In making a coin, a craft sman carved the image for one
side in reverse into iron or stone and then carved the image
for the other side into another block. Aft er the silver or gold
was heated to the melting point, it was placed between the two
blocks, and the top block was struck with a hammer. (For this
reason, coins are still said to be “struck” when they are manu-
factured.) Th is punched the images onto the coin. Th e fact that
many Greek coins are technically perfect is testimony to the
high degree of artisanship craft smen brought to coin making.
Coins developed in China and India in about 600 b.c.e.,
but in the Greek Empire, they emerged at roughly the same
time in the kingdom of Lydia (now in western Turkey). In
common with other forms of Greek art, historians divide the
history of Greek coinage into the archaic, the classical, and
the Hellenistic. Archaic coins were relatively crude, consist-
ing initially of lumps of gold or silver with geometric designs,
though in time fl at coins were developed. Later, coins be-
came more sophisticated and included an image of a god or
goddess as well as animal symbols.
By the Classical Period, Greek coinage had achieved
greater technical profi ciency, and the aesthetics of Greek
coins were more pleasing. During this period, many of the
conventions of coinage still in use today were developed.
On one side of the coin were images of gods, goddesses, or
heroes. On the other were symbols, such as the owl that sym-
bolized At hens. A lso, inscriptions were engraved on t he coins
for the fi rst time. During the Hellenistic Period, Greek infl u-
ence spread into such areas as Egypt, Iran, Syria, and as far
as India. Many of these kingdoms began producing their own
coins, and in some cases the coins were mass-produced. Gold
came to be used more frequently than silver. While many
of these coins lacked the artistic qualities of classical coins,
many also represented the highest level of the coin maker’s
art, and some were quite large. What distinguishes Hellenis-
tic coinage from that of earlier periods was the inclusion of
the images of living persons on coins. While this practice was
frowned upon in Athens, many surviving coins from other
regions in the realm, especially Syria and Egypt, contain
magnifi cent portraits of their rulers.JEWELRY
Ancient Greek jewelry not only refl ected the love of beauty
but also was connected with important moments in people’s
lives. Jewelry was given as gift s at birth and marriage, and
much surviving jewelry was buried in tombs. Th roughout a
person’s life, jewelry was worn in honor of the gods.
Most Greek jewelry was made with gold or silver, though
some was made with semiprecious stones and cheaper ma-
terials, such as bronze or clay. Some early Greek jewelry was
cast in molds, but most was made by hammering sheets of
metal to the desired thickness and then soldering the pieces
together. Most such pieces of jewelry had a design on the sur-
face produced with a variety of techniques, including repous-
sé. Th is process creates a relief on the surface by hammering
or pressing on the reverse side. Other techniques included
granulation (using tiny granules of metal to create a decora-
tion), engraving, and fi ligree (decorations created with fi ne
wire). Wire was oft en used to connect the pieces of such ob-
jects as necklaces.ROME
BY WILLIAM H. PECK
Th e history of Roman art is derived from two important
sources: actual works of art that have been preserved by
chance or rediscovered by archaeology and the writings of
ancient authors. Abundant examples exist of some of the art
forms practiced by Roman artists and craft smen, but it is to
the literary sources that we must turn to learn about tradi-
tions, techniques, and personalities. Of these sources Pliny the
Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus), who lived and wrote in the
fi rst century c.e., is by far the most important writer on arts
and craft s. His Natural History contains detailed information
on almost every aspect of the arts as practiced in his time.
Th e art of ancient Rome developed from two important
roots. Th e fi rst was the artistic tradition of the Etruscans, who
occupied the northwestern part of the Italian peninsula and
fl ourished from the eighth century b.c.e. to the rise of the Ro-
mans. Th e second major infl uence was the art of the Greeks,
with which the Romans came into contact through the Greek
colonies in southern Italy and on the Greek mainland itself.art: Rome 113