At Jenne-jeno, in what was then known as Ghana but is
now modern-day Mali, remains of a large settlement (cover-
ing 60 acres by 450 c.e.) has been excavated. Houses made
from mud sustained a large town on ground slightly higher
than the plains that surround the site. Th e thin walls show
t hat t here seems to have been litt le danger of interna l confl ict.
However, t he entire site is surrounded by a wa l l t hat measures
about 10 feet wide at the base and runs for slightly more than
one mile. Although two Roman or Greek beads have been
found there, it seems likely that any trade would have been
through intermediaries.
EGYPT
BY MARIE PASSANANTE
Th e borders of ancient Egypt remained remarkably stable
for such a long-lived civilization, largely because Egypt was
a country defi ned by natural borders. It occupies the long
section of fertile land lining the Nile Valley that stretches
from the Mediterranean Sea in the north down to Elephan-
tine, near modern Aswān, in the south. On the east and west
the Nile Valley is adjoined by harsh deserts. Th e greatest
fl uctuations to the Egyptian borders occurred during the
three Intermediate Periods, times of political upheaval that
took place aft er the Old Kingdom (2575–2134 b.c.e.), Middle
Kingdom (2040–1640 b.c.e.), and New Kingdom (1550–1070
b.c.e.). During and aft er these periods, Egypt was divided in-
ternally among rival Egyptian dynasties (First Intermediate
Period, 2134–2040 b.c.e.), among Egyptian dynasties and a
group of foreigners called the Hyksos (Second Intermediate
Period, 1640–1550 b.c.e.), and among Egyptian dynasties
and Libyan tribes as well as invaders from Kush in the south
(Th ird Intermediate Period, 1070–712 b.c.e.).
Th e Egyptians used several terms when referring to their
borders. Th e term tash was applied to a physical, politically
defi ned border, such as the border between Egypt and Nu-
bia in the south. We pet-ta literally means “the horns of the
Earth.” It was applied to limits of Egyptian domination in the
south. Th e term khent-hen-nefer, translating to “the frontier
region of the last fortifi cation,” also referred to the southern
border. It was used with reference to the region bordering
Egyptian territory. Th is region was not offi cia l ly par t of Eg y pt
but was still under Egyptian control.
Th e Mediterranean Sea borders Egypt on the north. Few
nations attempted sea travel before 1500 b.c.e.; their ships were
designed mostly for river travel and were not sturdy enough
for the sea. Th e northern border of Egypt was relatively secure
and did not need to be as heavily fortifi ed as the south and the
edges of the delta. South of Elephantine was the land of Nubia.
As well as being a major source of gold and the only source of
goods from Africa, Nubia was home to a potentially danger-
ous people who could—and did—threaten the security of the
Egyptian state. From the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom,
Egypt engaged in extensive military activity directed against
Nubia in order to retain control of this important area. Th e
southern border of Egypt was set at the fi rst cataract of the
Nile, the mythical source of the Nile. Elephantine was estab-
lished here as a frontier town and as a base for trading withTh e Semna dispatches, administrative documents from an Egyptian outpost, from Th ebes, Egypt, Twelft h Dynasty (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)
borders and frontiers: Africa 141