other one in Mycenae, in the Peloponnese. Th e Bronze Age
there ended in about 1200 b.c.e. Despite the introduction of
bronze, clay was still used to produce a number of household
goods, an example of which is a beautiful hestia (cook i ng
stove), now kept at the Museum of Nauplia (Peloponnese,
Greece), dating to 2600–2300 b.c.e. Clay objects were also
made to accompany the dead in their tombs. Discoveries of
numerous clay idols dating from 1380 to 1100 b.c.e. hint at
the fact that clay sculpture might have been used almost ex-
clusively for worship.
In the 1900s archaeological excavations on Crete brought
to light some 3,000 clay tablets inscribed with two scripts,
called Linear A and Linear B, respectively. Linear A was
used by the Minoans around 1750 b.c.e., but this early form
of writing has not been deciphered yet. Minoans also added
inked Linear A inscriptions to stone and terra-cotta vessels.
At the site of Phaestus archaeologists came across a most
peculiar object: a clay disk decorated with imprints (stamps
made with seal stones on wet clay) on both sides. Th e mean-
ing of the 45 symbols puzzles scientists still.
Linear B tablets were found on Crete and also at Pylos
and Mycenae on the Greek mainland. Most of them date to
1400–1150 b.c.e. Linear B was deciphered in 1952 by the Brit-
ish architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris. Th ese clay
tablets are the earliest evidence of the use of written language
in the history of Greece.
During the Archaic Period (600–480 b.c.e.) the two
main pottery-making techniques were the black-fi gure
technique (invented in Corinth but perfected in Athens)
and the red-fi gure technique. In black-fi gure vase painting
a black coating was applied on lighter, reddish-orange clay.
Th is coating was not color but rather a refi ned essence of
the same clay. Th e details were incised with a sharp object
that drew away the black coating from the surface before
the vessels were fi red. Sometimes white or reddish color
was added later. Th e most celebrated artifact of this period
is the so-called Amphora of Nessos (dating to 610 b.c.e. and
now kept at the Archaeological Museum of Athens). Th is
vessel marks the beginning of a series of black-fi gure-style
works by great Athenian potters, some of whom are known
by nicknames and others by conventional names (for ex-
ample, Painter of the Gorgons, from a vessel of 600–590
b.c.e.). Cleitias and Ergotimos are perhaps the two most
famous representatives of the early Attic black-fi gure style,
and then Nearchus, an artist from the second quarter of
the sixth century b.c.e. Th e names that prevail in the third
quarter of the sixth century b.c.e. are those of Lydos, the
Amasis Painter, and Exekias.
Around 525 b.c.e. the so-called Andokides Painter,
named aft er the potter he worked with in Athens, used the
red-fi gure technique for the fi rst time. Figures maintained
the reddish color of clay, while the background of the scene
was painted black, as were all the details of the faces and ev-
ery decorative detail of the vessels. Th is technique adds more
volume to forms, and details are more distinctively depict-
ed through the use of various size brushes. Red-fi gure vase
painting begins to approximate painting.
During the 30 years of Pericles’ leadership of Athens
(450–420 b.c.e.), a new style developed, called totally free
or beautiful rhythm. Th e compositions are freer, sometimes
fi gures appear in three-quarter profi le, and coatings are
used for indicating depth or shadows. Th e Achilles Painter,
the Cleophon Painter, the Eretria Painter, and Polygnotos
are some of the most famous artists of this time. At the
same time, a new technique appeared: painting of vessels
with dull red and black paint on a white ground. Th is tech-
nique was gradually limited to the lekythos, a vessel used to
store olive oil for the anointing of the dead in preparation
for burial or as a burial off ering. A freer style developed later
(420–390 b.c.e.), with scenes from daily life and domestic or
ritual activities.
Ceramics of the Hellenistic Period (323–31 b.c.e.) do
not have the aesthetic quality of the red-fi gure style of the
Classical Period. Th e most characteristic Hellenistic vessels
are certain skyphoi from Megara, an ancient city in Attica.
Th ese deep, two-handled cups feature embossed decoration,
usually mimicking plants. Other styles appear, such as the
so-called Western Klitys style (vessels with simple linear or
plant decoration, in white and yellowish coloring on a dark
glazed surface), the Gnathia style (with female heads, cupids,
birds, musical instruments, and discs on the surface), and the
Hadra style (with black tinning on a yellowish coating and
multicolored painting on white coating).ROME
BY MELISSA MOORE MORISON
Pottery is the most common artifact found on ancient Roman
archaeological sites—hardly an accident, since ceramic ob-
jects played an important role in every aspect of Roman life.
Th e Romans cooked and served their food in ceramic vessels,
used lamps made of clay to illuminate their houses at night,
constructed their homes and temples with brick and ceramic
roof tiles, and oft en used ceramic urns to preserve the ashes
of the deceased. Sturdier than objects made of glass, wood, or
metal, ceramic artifacts like these easily survived over time
and thus provide archaeologists and historians with impor-
tant information about the daily lives of the Roman people.
Specialists divide Roman ceramics into categories based on
function. Th e primary categories include vessels related to
food transport, cooking, and table service; lamps; bricks and
tile; and ritual objects, such as incense burners and cinerary
urns (used to hold the ashes of the dead).
Amphorae were large clay containers (3 to 5 feet long)
used for shipment of important commodities such as olive oil,
wine, condiments, and grain. Amphorae were produced in
several regions of the Roman Empire, including Spain, North
Africa, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and the Levant. Each
region produced amphorae of characteristic colors, sizes, and
styles. However, all amphorae shared a characteristic shapeceramics and pottery: Rome 183