directly related to their function as transport containers. In
order to function eff ectively as containers for food, amphorae
also needed to be watertight, thick, strong enough to with-
stand the stresses of maritime shipping, and large enough to
contain between 5 and 10 gallons of liquid. It was also neces-
sary to produce amphorae in standardized sizes and shapes,
so that large numbers of them (oft en up to 3,000) could be
loaded effi ciently into the cargo holds of ships.
Th e production of amphorae therefore presented a sig-
nifi cant technological challenge. For this reason, amphorae
were usually made in specialist workshops located near the
harbors from which trade goods were shipped. Potters in each
region developed specifi c clay “recipes” based on their under-
standing of the relative strengths of diff erent clays and min-
eral additives. Assembly-line techniques were also employed,
with one craft sman producing the top half of a vessel, another
producing the lower half, and another joining the halves and
adding handles and so on. Amphorae are very important in-
dicators of trade patterns and other economic structures. Th e
presence of a Spanish olive oil container on a small farmstead
in Jordan, for example, or the discovery of a North African
wine jar in a fortress in Britain says a great deal about the
extent of trade, the movement of goods, and the consumption
of food within disparate provincial populations.
Th e Romans employed several specialized ceramic vessels
for cooking. Roman cooks, like modern chefs, could choose
from a wide variety of pots and pans designed to optimize the
success of diff erent cooking techniques. Herbs, vegetables,
and soft cheeses were ground and mixed in the mortarium,
a heavy bowl with sharp stone fragments embedded in its in-
terior surface. Th e olla (or aula) was a deep, round-bottomed
vessel used for boiling stews or porridge. One could fry or
sauté fi sh in a shallow-angled pan with a nonstick surface
(patera or patina) whereas the patella, a deep, straight-sid-
ed pan, was most suitable for baking casseroles (which were
much-loved and characteristically Roman dishes). Grills for
cooking meat were also regularly made from clay, as was the
clibanus, a portable oven for bread baking. Th ese vessels, in
various sizes, made up a standard “set” found in most Roman
households across the empire.
Beyond the standard cookware repertoire, cooks through-
out Italy and the provinces also owned other vessels that
refl ected regional preferences in food preparation. Archaeo-
logical analysis of how cookware sets vary provides impor-
tant information about Roman food preferences across the
empire. Casseroles, for example, are found in relatively small
quantities in provinces without a strong Roman colonial
presence, as the dish is used for a specialized form of cook-
ing most popular in Italy itself that only rather slowly became
popular in other parts of the Mediterranean. Most cookware
was produced in local workshops, and only a small number
of ceramic cooking vessels were exported beyond regional
markets. While metal versions of these objects were available,
they were more expensive than the standard ceramic vessels
and are less commonly found.
Tableware includes all vessels intended for food service
and dining, from pitchers and platters to small cups and
plates. Many Roman tableware vessels were decorated with
bright red slip and intricate designs in raised relief. Th ese de-
signs consisted of simple geometric patterns; images of fi sh,
birds, and plants; early Christian iconography, or symbols
and images; elaborate mythological scenes; and workshop
trademarks. Vessels decorated in this style are oft en referred
to as terra sigillata.
Terra sigillata vessels were fi rst produced in Italy in the
fi rst century b.c.e. Unlike amphorae and cookware, which
were thrown by hand on a potter’s wheel, terra sigillata ob-
jects were made in molds in large factories. Clay molds were
created in the desired shape, and decorative patterns were cut
into the interior of the molds. When the molds were com-
plete, they could be used to make hundreds of standardized
cups, bowls, plates, and platters very rapidly. Soft , wet clay
was pressed fi rmly into a mold and smoothed so that the ex-
terior of the fi nished vessel would exhibit the desired pattern
in raised relief. Once the clay was dry, the vessel was removed
from the mold, coated with red slip, and fi nished with a deco-
rative base and handle while the mold was immediately usedAmphora from Pompeii, Italy (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)
184 ceramics and pottery: Rome