profi le. Th ere is such evidence in the region of the Andes. Th e
distinctive results of skull compression could signal the beauty,
status, or ethnic group of the individual and may have had reli-
gious or ritual purposes as well. Neonatal head shaping did not
seem to result in neurological damage.
Some evidence suggests that child sacrifi ce, a docu-
mented practice in the later Inca Period (ca. 1400–1500 c.e.),
also occurred in ancient South American cultures. At times,
ancient societies off ered children in sacrifi ce to deities be-
lieved to control natural phenomena; adults considered chil-
dren the most precious and pure gift they could present to
the gods. In 1995 the archaeologist Steve Bourget discovered
the bones of 42 male adolescents of the Moche culture (ca.
1–700 c.e.) embedded in a sacrifi cial plaza near a ceremonial
structure called the Huaca de la Luna on the northern coast
of Peru. Th is excavation marked the fi rst discovery of large-
scale sacrifi ce at a Moche site. Th e skeletal remains showed
many healed fractures, indicating that the boys participated
in combat activities in the years before their deaths.
Archaeological studies indicate that ancient Mesoameri-
cans also practiced both cranial deformation and occasional
child sacrifi ce. Practitioners of child sacrifi ce in Mesoamerica
probably sought to venerate water deities to ensure adequate
seasonal rains for farming or to appease deities in times of
drought or famine. Some studies suggest that children cho-
sen for sacrifi ce suff ered from illness; ancient Mesoamericans
may have viewed them as chosen by the gods for this honor.
Skeletal studies indicate that some sacrifi ced children suf-
fered from infection due to dental caries.
Th e Olmec, a culture that began to establish ceremonial
centers along the Gulf Coast of Mexico around 1500 b.c.e.,
oft en represented infants or fi gures with infantile aspects
in their artwork. Hollow ceramic fi gures depict the splayed
legs and chubby limbs of infants. Flattening at the back of
the head on these and other fi gures documents cranial de-
formation also found on skeletal remains. In addition, many
ceramic baby fi gures have crossed eyes. Th e Olmec and later
Maya cultures interpreted crossed eyes as a sign of beauty and
elegance and induced the eff ect by hanging a bead in front of
the child’s eyes.
Many sculptural forms combine corpulent infantile bod-
ies and crying Olmec “baby faces” with supernatural or jaguar
attributes. Th e resulting fi gure, referred to as a werejaguar,
probably functioned as a representation of a deity. Some
scholars argue that this association derives from Olmec belief
that young children were closer to the supernatural world in
their early years, before they learned to speak.
Th e Olmec also took a special interest in representing
birth anomalies in sculptures. One fi nds numerous fi gurines
representing dwarfs, hunchbacks, and club-footed or pigeon-
toed individuals. Th e Olmec believed that people who were
born with unusual physical traits possessed supernatural
abilities. Th e Olmec infant cults surely viewed the small stat-
ure of dwarfs as a link to the world of their deities.
Like their descendents, the ancient Maya welcomed chil-
dren and may have turned to Ix Chel, goddess of childbirth,
to promote fertility. Soon aft er birth the infant’s parents ap-
plied a pair of fl at boards to the back of the head and the
forehead. Left in place for several days, the device created a
permanently fl attened forehead, signaling beauty and status.
Like the Olmec, the Maya admired and induced crossed eyes.
Just as some families today pierce the ears of female children,
the Maya pierced the ears, lips, and nasal septum of boys and
girls to hold ornaments. Mothers cared for male and female
children until the age of four; by four or fi ve years of age male
children began to train with their fathers.See also agriculture; art; clothing and footwear;
death and burial practices; economy; education; em-
ployment and labor; family; festivals; food and diet;
gender structures and roles; health and disease;
hunting, fishing, and gathering; literature; military;
nomadic and pastoral societies; occupations; religion
and cosmology; settlement patterns; slaves and slav-
ery; social organization; sports and recreation; war
and conquest.Do not set out to stand around in the assembly. Do not
loiter where there is a dispute, for in the dispute they
will have you as an observer. Th en you will be made a
witness for them, and they will involve you in a lawsuit
to affi rm something that does not concern you. In case
of a dispute, get away from it, disregard it! If a dispute
involving you should fl are up, calm it down. A dispute
is a covered pit, a wall which can cover over its foes; it
brings to mind what one has forgotten and makes anaccusation against a man. Do not return evil to your
adversary; requite with kindness the one who does evil
to you, maintain justice for your enemy, be friendly to
your enemy.
Give food to eat, beer to drink, grant what is
requested, provide for and treat with honor. At this
one’s god takes pleasure. It is pleasing to Shamash,
who will repay him with favor. Do good things; be kind
all your days.... Th e Advice of an Akkadian Father
to His Son, ca. 2200 b.c.e. Th e Middle East198 children: primary source documents