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▶ climate and geography
introduction
In modern life, technology enables people to adapt the envi-
ronment to their needs. If farm fi elds are dry, electric-pow-
ered or gas-powered pumps allow farmers to irrigate. If the
temperature is too high, electric air-conditioning cools the air
in people’s homes and offi ces; if the temperature is too low,
furnaces provide heat. In contrast, ancient peoples had to
adapt their needs to the environment. Obviously, they could
modify their environment in simple ways, such as by build-
ing a fi re to provide warmth. But overall much of the history
of ancient peoples was determined by their physical environ-
ment and their eff orts to adapt their lives to the physical con-
ditions that surrounded them.
One major problem ancient peoples faced, however, was
climatic change, which disrupted societies and sometimes
forced the migration of people. An area that was wet and fertile
during one era could become dry and desertlike in a later era,
as happened in parts of Mesoamerica, the region that com-
prises the southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central
America. Meteorological events in one part of the world could
cause climatic change in another part of the world, raising
or lowering temperatures, increasing or decreasing rainfall,
or touching off violent storms. Further, catastrophic events
could wreak havoc with a people. A volcanic eruption, for ex-
ample, could not only wipe out a population but also change
the physical environment for survivors and for those living
in neighboring regions. Similarly, earthquakes could destroy
settlements and change the face of the earth for nearby set-
tlers. Drought could lead to famine and population depletion.
Africa, in particular, has been subject to climatic swings.
During parts of its ancient history, Africa was cool and dry,
primarily as a result of the last ice age, when ice pushed south-
ward and covered much of what is now Europe. Later, Af-
rica became much warmer and moister, leading to monsoon
rains. Later still, temperatures dropped again, and weather
patterns dried out. Th ese changes, which were not unique to
Africa, led to changes in vegetation, sometimes turning for-
ests into deserts and deserts into forests. Aft er the advent of
agriculture, such climatic shift s required Africans to adapt
the crops and farming practices to the new conditions. Th ey
also contributed to African history in major ways. When the
continent dried out, the Nile River became essentially the
center of civilization. It also led to confl ict between nations as
they struggled for resources to support their people.
Ancient peoples were driven by their need to fi nd ways
to adapt to their environment. One of their primary needs, of
course, was fresh water. Accordingly, early peoples tended to
form settlements along the banks of rivers or adjacent to lakes,
but living in these types of regions posed special problems.
People in Asia and Oceania, where oceans were nearby, were
subject to cyclones and tsunamis, and people in such places
as ancient Egypt were dependent on the annual fl ooding of
the Nile River along which they lived. In time, people learned
to harness at least some of the natural forces that surrounded
them. Th e ancient Egyptians, for example, developed a com-
plex and highly sophisticated system of irrigation and water
management, storing the fl oodwaters of the Nile for later use
in irrigating their crops. Th e ancient Romans, too, developed
sophisticated plumbing systems, with canals, dikes, and the
like to manage water fl ow.234 climate and geography: introduction