ported from India. A favorite blue stone, lapis lazuli, was im-
ported from the mountains of modern-day Afghanistan and
worked into rings and necklaces. Gold was pounded into thin
leaf and used as a setting, oft en shaped into leaves, cones, and
abstract geometrical forms.
Some larger items of adornment allowed artists the space
to depict the gods and spirits, or favorite scenes from myth.
Pectorals were small plates sewn together, suspended from
the neck and worn on the chest or over the abdomen. Pec-
torals (also used as body armor) and belts most commonly
were worn by men, while both sexes wore armbands around
the upper arm and bracelets on the forearm near the wrist.
Th e Mesopotamians also wore knee rings, ankle rings, toe
rings, and fi nger rings. Th e cylinder seal, which was origi-
nally meant to mark documents and possessions, later devel-
oped into a personal accessory. Th e seals were made of clay,
ivory, bone, or stone and engraved with a geometric pattern,
a symbol of high offi ce, or a scene from mythology. Th ey were
hung about the neck and provided the wearer with protection
and good fortune.
Men wore their hair long, with some going bearded,
some clean shaven, and others shaving only the upper lip.
Women braided their hair, wrapping a single braid around
the head, fastening it with a pin, and adorning it with a head-
dress on special occasions. Th ey also made use of wigs and
extensions to achieve the desired long and thick appearance.
Both men and women wore headgear, most oft en in wool
felt or linen. Th ere were rounded, square, and conical caps
worn by courtiers, soldiers, offi cials, and common citizens.
In Persia of the Achaemenid dynasty (sixth century b.c.e.),
prominent headgear indicated social position. Only Per-
sian kings, for example, had the right to wear high turbans.
Distinctive ribbons were worn by the king and the princes;
royal offi cials and courtiers also had turbans and hats that
showed their rank.
With bathing a relatively rare event, the Mesopotamians
used a variety of oils and ointments to keep the body fresh
and sweet smelling and to protect their faces from damag-
ing sun and dry winds. On the occasion of a solemn religious
ceremony, powdered minerals were applied to the face and
around the eyes. Plant gums and resins, including cedar,
myrrh, frankincense, lavender, thyme, rose, aloe, and cypress,
were burned and mixed with vegetable oil (oft en sesame, ol-
ive, or almond) or rendered animal fat, to use as ointments
and perfumes. Mesopotamian women distilled henna from a
plant and used it to color their hair, hands, and nails.
Women also used mascara, lipstick, and face powder, ap-
plied with the tip of a reed; red or yellow ocher were the most
common ingredients,. By an Assyrian law passed in about
1200 b.c.e., women of the upper classes were permitted to go
about veiled, but the veil was prohibited to slaves and pros-
titutes. Originally a sign of high status, this custom spread
to the rest of society and throughout the Middle East in the
millennia to come.The traditional black eye cosmetic known as kohl has
several millennia of history, stretching back into the
ancient kingdoms of the Near East and Egypt. Men
as well as women used many different forms of eye
makeup in Mesopotamia. It was a status symbol, in-
dicating wealth and enough leisure time to care for
and decorate the face. Makeup of different colors
lengthened the eyebrows, accented the eyelashes,
and rimmed the upper and lower eyelids to give a
striking appearance.
In all times, painting the eyes with protective min-
erals also had a practical use: It warded off diseases
of the eye that are still common in the dry desert cli-
mate of the Near East. Galena, a common ingredi-
ent of kohl, served as a disinfectant; it deterred fl ies
and also provided some protection from the sun. Eye
makeup also was believed to provide the wearer with
psychic protection, warding off bad spirits and im-
parting good fortune.
Small glass tubes used to hold eye cosmetics are
among the fi rst glass objects of any kind. The tubes
were made of silica, mined from quartz sand, and so-
dium carbonate, a substance made from the ashes
of plants, which lowers the melting point of quartz.
These tubes held galena or green malachite, which
could be applied separately on the upper and lower
eyelids. Later ingredients were antimony, lead, ocher,
ash, malachite, and burnt almonds, mixed in various
portions. The Akkadian word for galena, guhl, was the
original source of the word kohl.ANCIENT KOHL
Gold lion, used as a fabric ornament; found at Persopolis, Persia
(modern-day Iran) (Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago)adornment: The Middle East 7