or atop platforms, alongside similar mirrors and jade fi gures,
beads, and ear ornaments. One ruler lay alongside the bro-
ken head of a stone statue—perhaps his portrait, ritually de-
stroyed at his death.
Elaborate burials for ruling elites in Mesoamerica con-
tinued among the ancient Maya. At Tikal, Guatemala, kings
of the Late Formative Period (ca. 400 b.c.e.–150 c.e.) were
buried in vaults under stone temple platforms that served as
shrines for their veneration as ancestors. Some of these tombs
are decorated with wall paintings, and human sacrifi cial
victims accompanied some rulers into the aft erlife. Painted
pottery (probably used for funeral feasts) and jade ornaments
rested with the royal dead. (In one instance, the remains of
the monarch lacked the skull and thighbones—presumably
they were either taken as relics by his own people or removed
as trophies by enemies on the battlefi eld. A stone mask might
have served as a magical substitute for his missing cranium.)
Later (ca. 250–550 c.e.) at Tikal the burials of kings Yax Nuun
Ayin and Siyah Chan Kawil contain similar riches as well as
ceramics imported from the distant city of Teotihuacán (near
modern-day Mexico City). Yax Nuun Ayin, whose name
means “First Crocodile,” even took a sacrifi ced caiman into
the tomb with him—perhaps a very literal emblem of his
name.
At Teotihuacán a wide range of burial practices prevailed
during the city’s heyday (ca. 1 b.c.e.–650 c.e.). Deceased resi-
dents of palaces and apartment complexes oft en remained
there in subfl oor burials and cremations. Th ough royal tombs
have not been identifi ed with certainty, the great pyramids
of the city may have covered the interments of its leaders.
Over a hundred sacrifi cial victims, along with rich off erings
of stone and shell weapons and ornaments, have been found
beneath the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent. Th ese people
may have been killed to accompany the now-looted burial
of an absolute ruler. In the Pyramid of the Moon, recently
discovered high-status burials include individuals buried in
a seated posture—a Maya trait—along with Maya-style jade
jewelry, further evidence of links between Maya and Teoti-
huacán rulers.
Many early Peruvian cultures show evidence of preserv-
ing the dead so that they could be accessible for veneration
a nd to g ive adv ice to t hei r descenda nts. In Pa rac a s a r id cond i-
tions have preserved mummy bundles buried in the late fi rst
millennium b.c.e. Paracas tombs are of two types, probably
partially overlapping in time. In one type the mummy bun-
dles were stacked up in bottle-shaped tombs cut into bedrock.
In the other type the bundles occupy abandoned structures,
oft en with what appears to be a most important burial sur-
rounded by the remains of lower-ranked fi gures. Th e core of
each bundle consists of a corpse seated in a fetal position on
a basket. Layers of shrouds interspersed with grave goods—
most frequently, beautifully woven and decorated cloth-
ing—surround the body. Single cloths can reach 85 feet in
length. Gold jewelry, painted ceramics, and even the polished
trophy skulls of enemies could also be included between lay-
ers of wrappings. Consequently the biggest bundles contain
the richest burials and their numerous eff ects. Although the
bodies are oft en well preserved and commonly called “mum-
mies,” their condition is the result of the extremely dry envi-
ronment and not of artifi cial embalming techniques.See also art; calendars and clocks; crafts; crime and
punishment; festivals; literature; religion and cos-
mology; sacred sites; social organization.Th e mode of embalming, according to the most perfect
process, is the following: Th ey take fi rst a crooked piece
of iron and with it draw out the brain through the
nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is
cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs; next they make
a cut along the fl ank with a sharp Ethiopian stone, and
take out the whole contents of the abdomen, which they
then cleanse, washing it thoroughly with palm wine, and
again frequently with an infusion of pounded aromatics.
After this they fi ll the cavity with the purest bruised
myrrh, with cassia, and every other sort of spicery except
frankincense, and sew up the opening. Th en the body is
placed in natrum for seventy days, and covered entirely
over. After the expiration of that space of time, which
must not be exceeded, the body is washed, and wrappedround, from head to foot, with bandages of fi ne linen
cloth, smeared over with gum, which is used generally
by the Egyptians in the place of glue, and in this state it
is given back to the relations, who enclose it in a wooden
case which they have had made for the purpose, shaped
into the fi gure of a man. Th en fastening the case, they
place it in a sepulchral chamber, upright against the wall.
Such is the most costly way of embalming the dead.
If persons wish to avoid expense, and choose the second
process, the following is the method pursued: Syringes
are fi lled with oil made from the cedar-tree, which is
then, without any incision or disemboweling, injected
into the abdomen. Th e passage by which it might be
likely to return is stopped, and the body laid in natrumHerodotus: “Mummifi cation,” from Th e Histories
Egypt(cont inued)death and burial practices: primary source documents 323