yams became especially important because they were not
overly sensitive to intemperate weather conditions. Th e in-
fl uence of wheat was felt particularly in North Africa, which
came under the infl uence of the Roman Empire. Th e Romans
introduced couscous and many bread products still common
in North Africa today. Th roughout the rest of Africa, grain
products were used primarily to make such dishes as por-
ridges, gruels, and pancake-like foods.
Anthropologists and archaeologists have been able to
reconstruct the diet of ancient Africans, at least in part, by
using modern scientifi c tools. Th ey operate under the prov-
erb that people “are what they eat.” Foods that ancient people
consumed leave identifi able chemical signatures in bones,
teeth, and hair. By using sophisticated scientifi c instruments,
scientists can examine, for example, carbon isotopes that re-
main in the skeletons of ancient people, including those of
Africa. From this evidence, they can deduce what ancient
peoples ate.
EGYPT
BY CHRISTINE END
Knowledge about the diet of the ancient Egyptians comes
from two-dimensional depictions, three-dimensional mod-
els, and archaeological evidence such as food and animal
remains. Farming was an important part of this agrarian
nation, not just because it allowed individuals to feed their
families. A person’s crop production determined his wealth
and dictated the amount of his annual tax. Th e Egyptians
also compensated workers, paid their taxes, and bartered for
other goods with food products.
In comparison with other ancient civilizations, the
Egyptians ate a well-balanced diet. Forensic evidence from
the examination of mummies suggests that Egyptians rarely
suff ered from malnutrition. Th e reason for Egypt’s well-nour-
ished population was the Nile River, which supplied its peo-
ple with a prolifi c food source. Th e fertile soil deposited aft er
the inundation (the annual fl ooding of the Nile) nourished
Egypt’s crops, and the river itself provided a lush habitat for
many species of animals and birds.
It is common to fi nd two-dimensional representations
of food off erings as well as of hunting and food preparation
on ancient Egyptian tomb walls. Th e Egyptians believed
these images could magically materialize and perpetually be
available for the deceased in the aft erlife. Th ree-dimensional
models of food and food production also off ered eternal sus-
tenance for the deceased in the tomb. Additionally, a variety
of preserved foodstuff s recovered from tombs give Egyp-
tologists information about the preferred diet of the ancient
Egyptians.
Th e particulars of meals and the dining schedules of the
ancient Egyptians are unknown. Pictorial evidence and the
remains of food suggest that the Egyptians prepared their
diet in a variety of ways, including stewing, frying, boiling,
roasting, grilling, drying, and salting. More written and vi-
sual data survives about food-related celebrations and festi-
vals than about customary daily meals. Elaborate banquets
during which people indulged in abundant food, drink, mu-
sic, and entertainment marked these events.
Th e two main food staples of ancient Egyptians from
all social classes were bread and beer. Within the customary
funerary-off ering formula (texts written on funeral objects),
these two items always fi gure prominently. Bread loaves were
typically triangular or ovoid, but many shapes and sizes
existed, including a variety of odd-shaped loaves specially
formed for religious reasons. Stone-ground emmer or barley
wheat was the principal grain used in breads. Stone grind-
ing produced grit-laden bread that ground down people’s
teeth over their lifetime. Wealthy Egyptians oft en enjoyed
sweetbreads, biscuits, and cakes, while commoners may have
tasted these luxuries only on special occasions.
Egyptian beer was a thick, nutritious mixture of vary-
ing alcohol content consumed by adults and children alike.
As with bread, barley and emmer were the main components
in Egyptian beer. Because it was such a staple in the diet,
beer brewing in the home was commonplace. Sometimes the
Egyptians enjoyed fl avored beers by adding fruits, honey, or
spices.
Ancient Egyptians ate a variety of locally grown fruits
and vegetables. Onions were the most popular vegetable, as
evidenced in many off ering table depictions. Other vegetables
favored by the Egyptians were beets, garlic, cucumbers, cel-
ery, turnips, leeks, and lettuces. Th e Nile River was an ad-
ditional source of other edible plants, including water-borne
sedges, lotus, and tiger nut.
Fruits included dates, grapes, dom palm, pomegranates,
berries, and fi gs. Fruit was eaten fresh but also used in cook-
ing or preserved for future use by drying. Elite Egyptians
enjoyed red and white wine produced from grapes. Ancient
Egyptian wine amphorae were carefully marked with the
type of wine, production year, and sometimes an indication
of the quality of the wine they contained. Figs, dates, palm
leaves, and possibly pomegranates were alternative ingredi-
ents used to make wine. Fruits were additionally included in
recipes for sweetness, as was the carob pod, though not as
frequently as honey. Although it was a luxury, honey was the
primar y sweetener. Bees were a lso kept as a source of beeswa x
used to create models for the casting of metal and as a waxy
polish. Legumes such as beans, peas, and lentils rounded out
the Egyptian diet. Th ey supplied an easily cultivated protein
source that was less expensive than meat. Of these three, len-
tils were the most common.
Local and imported spices seasoned the ancient Egyptian
diet. Th yme, coriander, marjoram, fenugreek, dill, parsley,
and cumin were all regionally grown spices. Salt improved
fl avor but also was used as a preserving agent for meat, fi sh,
and fowl. Luxurious imported spices used in cooking may
have included pepper and cinnamon.
Th e ancient Greek traveler Herodotus erroneously re-
ported that the Egyptians did not eat fi sh, possibly because474 food and diet: Egypt