things, the king was instructed to build up his own fortifi ca-
tions, encourage trade, dig mines for metals, police the forest,
improve irrigation systems to ensure regular crops, and build
enclosures for elephants. Military success was a direct result
of economic prosperity, so the king was to oversee all aspects
of the economy, including agriculture, trade, craft s, and min-
ing. Success also depended on a contented citizenry, so the
king was to keep taxes low and burden his people as little as
possible. Th e book describes the ideal structure of the ad-
ministration, which included ministers, regional governors,
priests, inspectors, and various other offi cers.
Th e king Asoka was one of the most important rulers of
the Maurya Empire (ca. 321–185 b.c.e.). He ruled the central
part of it himself. Th e rest of his territory he divided into four
large provinces, each under the rule of a prince who acted
as governor. Th e provinces themselves were subdivided into
districts with their own rulers. Individual towns had local
leaders, judges, and other offi cers. Th e entire system was cen-
tralized, with Asoka at the top. Rulers could be harsh, and
punishments for crimes were cruel; death sentences were
common. Th e government controlled trade and no one was
allowed to travel without fi rst registering with the govern-
ment and carrying a passport.
Th e Gupta Dynasty ruled northern India from 240 to
about 550 c.e. Th e structure of this empire served as a pattern
for several subsequent centuries of Indian kingdoms. Gupta
kings had a diff erent philosophy from that of their predeces-
sors. Th ey believed that the ruler should serve his people and
make their lives better. Within the kingdom, all people were
classifi ed according to caste. Most land was held by wealthy
families and worked by peasants or slaves who were under
their noble patrons’ control; these workers were poor, but
their patrons were also expected to care for them and not
allow them to starve. Th e government provided numerous
services to the people, including free hospitals that were paid
for by charitable contributions from the wealthy. Th e govern-
ment ran rest houses along highways so that travelers would
have a comfortable place to stay. Punishments for crimes were
reduced and people were allowed to travel freely. People were
allowed to run businesses if they so chose.
Th e Gupta emperor lived at the center of the empire,
having destroyed the governments of the kings who had lived
there earlier. Royal offi cers administered this area directly.
Th e edges of the empire contained several border kingdoms
ruled by kings who paid tribute to the Gupta monarchs and
were required to at tend t he imperia l cour t. Some of t hese bor-
der kings had fought against the Guptas as they were estab-
lishing the empire, but they were reinstated by the emperor.
Border kingdoms were not required to assist the emperor in
his wars; they functioned as tributary princes but not as true
vassals in the European sense. Between the border kingdoms
and the central kingdom were some wilderness areas, home
to tribes that were never subdued. Outside the borders of the
empire lived independent kings with whom the Guptas en-
gaged in diplomatic relations.
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Several kingdoms existed in Southeast Asia in ancient times.
Most of t hem were heav i ly i n fl uenced by eit her I nd ia or Ch i na
or both. Vietnam was colonized by Chinese people from the
Qin Dynasty in 208 b.c.e. Th e Qin general Zhao Tuo created a
country on the Red River delta called Nam Viet. For the next
1,000 years Chinese people controlled Nam Viet as a subject
state. Chinese rulers decided how to use the land and native
Vietnamese occasionally rebelled, but they did not gain their
independence from China until 939 c.e.
Th e Mon people of Burma built the kingdom of Suvar-
nabhumi around 300 b.c.e., but little is known about that
kingdom. Th e Pyu people came to Burma two centuries later
and created several city-states that never coalesced into a cen-
tral government. Powerful cities demanded tribute from less
powerful ones; the most powerful city was Sri Ksetra. Th e
rulers passed laws against crimes and punished criminals by
whippings or death.
Funan was a kingdom that arose around the Mekong
Delta in southern Cambodia and Vietnam sometime around
1 c.e.; at its largest extent, in the third century, it encompassed
parts of Malaysia and Burma. Its capital was near modern
Phnom Penh. It was run as an empire headed by a royal fam-
ily; the Chinese said this family came from India. Sanskrit
was the offi cial court language, and the royal family practiced
Hinduism. Citizens paid taxes to the monarchs in the form of
gold, silver, pearls, and perfumed wood. Th e rulers built up a
large commercial fl eet that traded with both India and China.
Provinces were allowed to continue governing themselves as
long as they remained loyal to the monarch.
Th e Malay kingdom called Srivijaya arose on the island
Sumatra around 200 c.e. Some historians believe that it took
over an earlier kingdom, the small Hindu kingdom called
Pan Pan. Srivijaya was led by a king who functioned mainly
as a military ruler. Th e island was divided into smaller states
that were led by their own chiefs, who were organized by the
king and came to his aid when needed. Th is kingdom was a
thalassocracy, that is, one based on dominance of the local
seas—a control that did not necessarily extend into the inte-
rior of the island.
Th e Philippines did not develop large kingdoms during
the ancient period. People lived in kin groups of about 50
families led by chiefs who settled disputes and made major
decisions for the community. Within the groups people were
classifi ed as nobles, freemen, or slaves.AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA
Th e ancient people of Australia, called Aborigines, did not
have a formal government. Th ey built no cities or even smaller
settlements, instead living in open camps that could easily be
moved from place to place. Individuals did not own anything;
possessions belonged to the group as a whole. People belonged
to clans that traveled together, but groups were usually small.
Th e only leaders in the community were tribal elders, whogovernment organization: Asia and the Pacific 523