in cities. Because of the limited water, settlement was con-
centrated on riverbanks. Th e population grew steadily but
remained concentrated in the same areas because it was im-
possible to farm land more than a few miles from the river.
Towns grew into cities, and the people of the cities developed
governments that organized farming and food distribution.
Most Sumerian people had to spend part of the year farming,
but they did not own their own farms. Th ey were working for
their city, which oversaw all aspects of agriculture, from irri-
gat ion to sow ing to ha r vest. Th e city also stored and distribut-
ed grain to its citizens. Sumer’s communal agricultural form
was successful enough to create an extensive empire based on
its fl ourishing agriculture. Th e farmers produced such a sur-
plus that the society could support a large army. Th e Sume-
rian Empire eventually encompassed some 21 known cities,
each ruled by its own priest or king.
Th e farmers’ practice of fl ooding the fi elds yearly gradu-
ally made the soil around Sumer get too salty for wheat. To-
ward the end of the Sumerian Empire they could grow only
barley, which tolerates higher salinity. Eventually the region
became too saline for successful agriculture, and the empire
collapsed around 2000 b.c.e. By the Bronze Age (3500–1200
b.c.e.) agriculture supplied the majority of the food for resi-
dents of the ancient Near East. Some nomads depended
largely on their herded sheep or goats, but most people lived
in or near cities or towns and had to grow food to survive.
During the Bronze Age people throughout the Middle East
began using bronze to make farming implements. Th is was
an improvement over the stone tools of the Neolithic Period.
Bronze plows in particular were much more effi cient than
earlier wooden and stone plows.
Th e Bronze Age was characterized by the rise of city-
states. Following the example of the Sumerians, societies
organized themselves around cities and agriculture. Th e
famous empires of the ancient Middle East—the Assyrians,
Babylonians, Hittites, Hyksos, Persians, Parthians, and Isra-
elites—were all founded on agriculture. Th ey competed with
one another for farm space and access to water, which are
still points of contention in the region today. Governments
in the region regulated irrigation very closely. Th e Iron Age
began around 1200 b.c.e. People had already started working
iron in Anatolia by the 14th century b.c.e., and iron became
more prevalent than bronze throughout the region. Much
iron was worked into weapons, but iron farming imple-
ments became common as well. Iron plows especially helped
increase production. Farms grew smaller again as large cit-
ies disappeared during times of drought, such as the three-
century-long drought that ended the Akkadian civilization
around 2200 b.c.e.
Th e Persian Empire arose in Iran starting in 648 b.c.e.
Persia, like most of the Middle East, was plagued by constant
water shortages. Most years it received between four and
eight inches of rain. In order to prevent this scant rainwa-
ter from evaporating, Persian engineers created a system of
underground tunnels called qanats (also called kareez) that
channeled water from water sources to the fi elds. Th e em-
peror Darius (r. 522–486 b.c.e.) encouraged research into ir-
rigation and agriculture by rewarding skilled innovators. Th e
government regulated irrigation systems and encouraged
experimentation with new crops, introducing crops such as
alfalfa, rice, pistachio, and sesame into various parts of the
Persian Empire.
Agriculture continued to improve during the classical
Greek and Roman periods. People had by now domesticated
a larger variety of crops, including almonds, walnuts, grapes,
and olives. Letting fi elds lie fallow from time to time improved
the fertility of the soil. Under the Romans, wealthy landown-
ers began creating large estates worked by slaves and running
them as businesses. During the Roman Empire slaves from
all over Europe and the Middle East went to Rome and then
brought Roman agricultural techniques and crops back to
their homelands. Many agricultural products were exported
from the Middle East to Rome. Th ese included wines, nuts,
onions, and fruits such as the plums from Damascus and the
dates from Jericho; nonfood exports included linen from Pal-
estine and wool from Damascus.ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
BY AMY HACKNEY BLACKWELL
Agriculture first appeared in China in about 6500 b.c.e.
Although the Fertile Crescent of the Near East is gener-
ally credited with being the first place where agriculture
arose, about 8000 b.c.e., China was not far behind. Just
as wheat spread from the Middle East into Europe and
brou g ht w it h it c u lt u r a l c h a nge s , r ic e s pre a d t h rou g h A si a.
Although rice was not the only crop domesticated in Asia,
it was by far the most important. Rice helped China grow
into a well-organized, technologically advanced, and pop-
ulous civilization while neighboring countries were still
inhabited by hunter-gatherers using stone tools. People
throughout the entire Asia Pacific region eventually ac-
quired agriculture for themselves; however, the Chinese
remained the dominant culture, thanks in part to their
head start in growing rice.ASIAN CROPS
Asians domesticated several staple crops and grew them
throughout the Asia Pacifi c region. Rice, by far the most im-
portant staple, is a grassy plant with edible seeds. It comes in
many varieties and can be grown almost anywhere, though
most varieties thrive in water. To eat rice, people fi rst remove
the outer hull and possibly the bran as well, producing white
rice. Th is milling process removes many of rice’s nutrients,
making it a source of calories and little else. People gener-
ally prepare rice by boiling it, though it can also be pounded
into fl our to make sticky dumplings. Rice originated in Chi-
na and quickly spread throughout Asia, where it became the
staple cereal of many people’s diets. Today more than half the
world’s population eats rice as its main food. Th e people ofagriculture: Asia and the Pacific 29