Th roughout ancient Europe, living past age 40 would have
been an unusual accomplishment.
Disease was rife among ancient Europeans, primarily as
a result of poor hygiene combined with ignorance about the
causes of disease and about bodily processes. Of course, in-
fections were common, for people did not bathe or change
and wash clothing very oft en, and they lived in close proxim-
ity to livestock and domesticated animals, along with their
waste. Communicable diseases, such as smallpox and mea-
sles, were an ever-present threat, and infections from wounds
could easily turn deadly. People suff ered from a host of com-
plaints, including intestinal parasites (oft en from unsanitary
water and poor waste disposal), eye disorders, respiratory
infections, and dental disease. All of these relatively simple
complaints could have dire eff ects. Intestinal disorders, for
example, could lead to diarrhea and consequent dehydration,
shock, and death. Eye problems contributed to accidental in-
juries and death; at best, they severely limiting the suff erer’s
quality of life. Respiratory infections could turn into pneu-
monia, and tuberculosis was common. Dental disease made
it diffi cult for older adults to chew food, with resulting conse-
quences to their health.
Further, diets were not always well balanced, given that
the availability of foodstuff s was dependent on the seasons.
During the summer, fruits, vegetables (primarily roots and
leafy vegetables), and berries would have been available, pro-
viding people with essential vitamins, but during the long
winters people relied primarily on meat (preserved by salting
or drying), dairy products from livestock, and stored grain.
Some diseases were genetically based. One example is a dis-
order called Dupuytren’s disease, a genetically transmitted
deformity of the fi ngers. Th is disorder was relatively wide-
spread among the ancient Scandinavians and later extended
to the rest of Europe aft er the Viking invasions in the Com-
mon Era.
None of this is to say that the ancient Europeans did
not make eff orts to practice a form of medicine. One form
of “medicine,” of course, involved religious beliefs put into
practice. To cure their disorders, people turned to the gods,
usually enlisting the help of shamans (native healers) and
priests, many of whom were thought to have magical powers.
Examples of shrines, with replicas of human organs, suggest
that people went to such shrines seeking cures. Another com-
mon practice was the sacrifi cing of an animal, such as a bull,
to eff ect a cure. Also popular among the ancient Europeans
were healing springs, including numerous springs in Gaul
(modern-day France) and in Bath, England. People believed
that the waters in these places had medicinal properties. In
some respects, they may have been correct. Th e warm, sooth-
ing waters of these springs and baths undoubtedly provided
at least some psychological benefi ts, giving the suff erer relief
from pain and the will to get better.
Herbal remedies were also popular. Among the ancient
Celts, for example, mistletoe was thought to have healing
properties; in fact, mistletoe contains chemicals that have
been shown to reduce blood pressure, and it is the basis of
several modern-day homeopathic remedies. Ancient Roman
historians who traveled in such places as Gaul wrote about
the healing properties of various plants, including “samolus,”
“selago,” and “anguinum,” though modern historians have
been unable to identify these plants. Celery and parsley were
also thought to have medicinal properties.
In general, ancient Druid healers among the Celts were
familiar with a wide range of plant substances that had ben-
efi cial health eff ects. Examples include the bark of the willow
tree, which contains a substance that is chemically similar to
the active ingredient in aspirin, though it caused a great deal
of stomach pain because it was not “buff ered,” as modern as-
pirin is. Th ey probably gathered these substances according
to a strict schedule based on the phases of the moon, in the
bel ief t hat a l l t he powers of nat u re worked ha nd i n ha nd. Th ey
were also familiar with poisons and thought that a poisonous
plant was not harmful if it was picked with the left hand. InTerra-cotta votive womb, Italy, 400–200 b.c.e.; such models of affl icted
body parts were placed in healing sanctuaries throughout Italy. (© Th e
Trustees of the British Museum)health and disease: Europe 551