tians became highly skilled carpenters. Although the house-
hold was never overly furnished, furnishings made from
wood were highly valued possessions. In early times native
woods such as acacia, tamarisk, and sycamore fi g were rela-
tively inexpensive compared with imported woods, but these
trees were not large enough to produce sizable lumber, nor
were they strong enough for furniture. Gy psum, gesso (a ty pe
of plaster), and paint applied to the surface of the furniture
covered the imperfections of inferior woods and created a
clean exterior for painting the furniture. Expensive imported
woods, such as beech, elm, ash, fi r, maple, juniper, oa k, pine,
cedar, ebony, and yew, provided better quality wood for fur-
niture. Ivory was another luxury material craft smen used to
make furniture.
A bedroom may have had a vaulted ceiling over the
bed to capture excess heat, making the sleeping area more
comfortable. Examples of high, boxed beds made from mud
brick survive from the workmen’s homes in Deir el-Medina.
A reed mat rolled out on one of these platforms provided a
surface for sleeping. Th e height of this type of bed may have
also protected the sleeper from poisonous creatures during
the night. Th e sleeper could create the illusion of privacy as
well as gain additional protection from insects by the use of
a bed canopy.
Th e Egyptians slept in wooden beds if they could aff ord
to own one. Wooden beds were low and slightly slanted. Th e
wood frame contained reed matting or leather in the center
to create a fl exible, more comfortable sleeping surface. Th e
mattresslike cushioning of the bed, provided by folded sheets
of linen cloth or a cushion of linen casing stuff ed with bird
feathers, gave the sleeper additional comfort. Wooden head-
rests, consisting of a curved surface to support the neck atop
a column upon a base, cradled the sleeper’s head. Headrests
discovered under the heads of mummies within their coffi ns
mimic the sleeping postures of the ancient Egyptian. For the
living, headrests wound with linen provided additional pad-
ding for the sleeper’s head.
Low, sturdy stools were the most popular piece of fur-
niture in the Egyptian home. Many varieties of stools sur-
vive from ancient Egypt. Th ree- and four-legged stools were
both used, though the latter were more common. Th e ancient
Egyptians also invented convenient collapsible stools much
like the modern-day folding chair. A curved seat, perhaps
made of woven plant material or leather, provided a comfort-
able place for sitting. Cushions upon the seat of the stool cre-
ated a soft er seat. Stools survive in alternate materials as well,
including those fashioned from limestone surviving from the
site of Amarna.
Chairs were used by the Egyptians, but not as frequently
as stools. Th eir rarity suggests that chairs were more of a
luxury item. Seats of surviving rush chairs are contoured, as
were the chair backs. Armless models of chairs were more
common than chairs with arms. Chairs were elaborately dec-
orated more oft en than stools; some chairs are embellished
with legs resembling a bull’s or lion’s legs, intricate inlays,
carvings, and gilding.
Bathrooms were part of the Amarna Period (ca. 1350
b.c.e.) Egyptian household, along with toilet seats con-
structed of clay, wood, or, for the wealthy, stone. A chamber
pot fi lled with sand changed by household servants would
suffi ce for waste removal. Indoor showers, another luxury of
the elite, consisted of a low walled area where water poured
on the bather could drain outside.
Th e ancient Egyptian home lacked closets, cupboards,
or dressers. Household items such as clothing, bedding, and
other items not in constant use were stored in wooden chests,
boxes, or baskets. Cosmetics, worn by both men and women
from the earliest periods of Egyptian history, as well as other
toiletry items were oft en stored in elaborate wooden boxes
along with a mirror for application. Many examples of exqui-
sitely designed and embellished containers, storage chests,
and cosmetic storage containers survive.THE MIDDLE EAST
BY DAVID KELLY
Th e area between the eastern Mediterranean, the Taurus
Mountains, the northern Arabian Desert, and the Zagros
Mountains is oft en considered the cradle of civilization. In-
novations as basic to household life as the domestication of
animals, cultivation of crops, weaving, and the potter’s wheel
fi rst occurred there. Exotic woods and metals that were un-
available locally came to the area from Anatolia, the Plateau
of Iran, the Indus Valley, Central Asia, the Persian Gulf, andA folding wooden headrest, from Akhmin, Egypt, late Eighteenth
Dynasty, around 1225 b.c.e.; the head of Bes, protector of the home,
shows on the neckpiece. (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)
household goods: The Middle East 563