thread was invented, though archaeologists and historians
are sure it was originated by the Chinese. In ancient Chinese
folklore the wife of the mythical Yellow Emperor Huangdi
was drinking a hot beverage in about 2700 b.c.e. when the
cocoon of a silkworm dropped into it. Th e cocoon unrav-
eled, revealing strong strands of silk that the queen could
twist together to make thread. Th e queen is almost certainly
a mythological fi gure, but the discovery of silk may not have
been much diff erent from the tale because to make silk the
cocoons were boiled and the strands carefully unwound.
Th ey were then twisted together to make a tough thread.
Archaeologists disagree about when silk cloth was fi rst in-
vented, with many believing it did not occur until the Shang
Dynasty, while some believe it occurred as early as 7000
b.c.e., based on an ivory cup with a silkworm design dated
to that era. In Zhejiang, silk thread that may date to 3000
b.c.e. has been found.
Before the invention of paper, silk cloth and bamboo slats
were used in China for writing. In the second century c.e. a
eunuch in the emperor’s court, Cai Lun, explained to his em-
peror that bamboo was too heavy and silk too expensive for
writing, so he experimented with substances that he could
substitute for silk. Th rough experimentation he hit upon
combining hemp from fi shing nets, old rags, and tree bark;
chopping and pulping the combination; and then spreading
the wet pulp on screens to dry. He is credited with making
the fi rst paper in 105 c.e., though some older examples of rag
paper have been found dating to about 49 c.e., which sug-
gests that he was building on preliminary work already done.
Th e Chinese used the paper not only for writing but also for
painting, wrapping, and clothing.
EUROPE
BY MICHAEL J. O’NEAL
Th e word invention in modern life implies a sudden break-
through, a moment of inspiration when a curious inventor
solves a problem in the physical world by creating something
that was unknown before—a tool, a process, or a material—
and thereby changes the relationship between humans and
their physical world. Th e discovery can oft en be attributed
to a particular individual or a team of researchers. In the
ancient world, however, inventions cannot be attributed to
particular individuals or even groups. Instead, technology
advanced gradually in response to particular environmental
or economic conditions.
In ancient Europe, where written records were largely ab-
sent until the end of the fi rst millennium b.c.e., information
about inventions could not be transmitted except by word of
mouth. As a result, similar inventions arose independently at
diff erent times and places in ancient Europe. A key point to
consider is whether an invention was an accidental novelty
or was the platform on which a new and lasting technology
was based. During the Paleolithic Period in central Europe
(ca. 24,000 b.c.e.), for example, people developed the ability
to fi re clay, but they used it for only a short while to make
clay fi gurines and other small objects. Th e use of fi red clay to
make ceramic containers would not be invented until thou-
sands of years later.
Metallurgy was a key area for invention in ancient Eu-
rope. In southeastern Europe around 5000 b.c.e. prehistoric
people developed the ability to produce very high tempera-
tures to fi re their pottery. Th ey realized, perhaps accidentally,
that copper could be smelted from its native ores at these
temperatures as well, thus yielding a material that could be
hammered and eventually cast into ornaments and tools.
Subsequently, around 2500 b.c.e., they discovered that mix-
ing the copper with tin or arsenic made a much harder metal
called bronze. Th e demand for this metal triggered further
inventions in casting and alloying to make more complex
items.
Th e appearance of iron meta l lurg y around 1000 b.c.e. of-
fered further opportunities for invention. While the Europe-
ans did not invent the metal sword, for example, they carried
sword-making techniques to new heights. One good example
is the so-called Kilburn sword, discovered in East Yorkshire,
England, and dating to about the third century b.c.e. Th e
s word consi st s of more t ha n 70 s e pa r ate pa r t s , i nc lud i ng t hos e
made of iron, horn, and glass, each carefully engineered and
assembled to create a weapon that represented the highest de-
gree of technical innovation in metalsmithing.
An invention of process in ancient Europe was the use of
domestic animals, specifi cally oxen, to pull plows and wag-
ons. Th e fi rst traces of plow use appear around 3500 b.c.e.
Th e fi rst plows, called ards, simply scratched the soil to create
furrows in which seeds could be planted. Th ese plows worked
only on light, dry soils. To deal with heavier, wetter soils thatPair of fragments of silk, from Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu Province, China (third to fi ft h century c.e.); archaeologists
believe that the Chinese invented silk thread. (© Th e Trustees of the
British Museum)
inventions: Europe 599