larger-than-life person from the past. Th e legend was a tale
of ancestors or events from the heroic historic past that the
community considered memorable and instructive to be re-
told. It could also be a historical tale.
Th e myth oft en described a tale of the origins of the com-
munity’s ancestors. Th ese oft en included the environment,
culture, gods, and authoritative ancestors. Th ese myths could
a l s o b e l e g e n d s. I n S o u t h A f r i c a a r o u n d 2 0 0 0 b .c. e. t w o g r o u p s
inhabited the region. Th e Khoikhoi who lived in present-day
Botswana had a creation myth concerning Tsui Goab, who
was a great powerful chief. Tsui Goab was the fi rst Khoikhoi
from whom all the Khoikhoi clans took their origin. At the
same time, the neighbors of the Khoikhoi during this period,
the Khoisan of present-day South Africa, Namibia, and Bo-
tswana, had a creation myth about Cagn, the fi rst being, who
created the world. In eastern Africa around 1000 b.c.e. the
founding myth of the kingdom of Axum relates the origins of
the kingdom through the birth of Menelik I, son of Axum’s
Queen of Sa’aba (Sheba) and King Solomon of Israel.
Th e divination tale came from a large body of community
wisdom collected and incorporated in the decision-making
process. Th e Yoruba of West Africa (present-day Nigeria and
Benin) date back to 350 b.c.e., and they developed divination
texts that were a large corpus of Yoruba wisdom refl ecting the
group’s history, culture, moral values, and views on specifi c
issues. Th e diviner was the repository of this type of special-
ized knowledge, which was passed down from one generation
to the next. Th is knowledge was related in verse, “the sixteen
cowries,” which was recited as required by the events.
Th e hunter’s tale was a story from the hunt of bygone
days where the community’s hunters regaled one another and
their families with stories. Th ey also told tales of their ances-
tor hunters, who were remembered and who became larger
than life as their exploits were recounted.
Poetry is thought communicated in verse and an im-
portant genre found in most communities of the continent,
where the people enjoyed rhyming and rhythmic composi-
tion. For many, poetry was synonymous with language, and
it was an integral part of daily life. Members communicated
about serious issues, such as local politics, or recreational
topics, such as romantic love. Poetry included epic poems,
songs, praise poetry, proverbs, and riddles. Oral poetry was
composed according to a predetermined formula. It may have
been composed, remembered, and performed, or it may have
been composed as it was performed.
Th e epic poem was a historical tale told in verse form in
which the accomplishments of a larger-than-life family or
community fi gure from the heroic historic past was further
embellished. Epic poems were either part of oral tradition
or stand-alone stories. In any case the poem was accompa-
nied by music and or dance and used varying performance
techniques.
Th e song was an important form of communication used
by all communities on the continent. As an example of the
concept of African oral literature being participatory, songs
used the call-and-response method. Work songs were call-
and-response because they were sung in a specifi c rhythmic
pattern to pace the work, where the group leader called out
the lyric and the group answered.
Th e praise poem could be found in most communities
on the continent. Th is elaborate poetry detailed the impor-
tant qualities and accomplishments of historic family or clan
members that were singled out for praise. Praise poetry was
composed and sung by professional artists who performed
them at public functions. While diff erent singers could per-
form a praise poem, the content remained the same, as the
poems were improv ised by apply ing t he techniques of sugges-
tion and insinuation from language and imagery in the por-
trayal of the person or event. Praise songs were incorporated
into the performance of the epic poem. Praise songs praised
the gods, the deeds of the hunter or warrior, the family of
a bride or groom at a wedding ceremony, or ancestors who
were important for the family to remember. However, praise
poetry used to extol the virtues of the community members
who might be considered leaders of the group was composed
for actions that were more than just praiseworthy; these acts
had to be remarkable, even for them.
Th e proverb used language and imagery to bring into
focus daily lessons for living. Th ey were succinct and could
be in prose or verse. In many communities the knowledge
of proverbs demonstrated wisdom and was used to prove a
point or to correct behavior. For some of these communi-
ties knowledge of proverbs was important or even required
to participate in eff ective conversation. Th e riddle was much
like the proverb in that the focus was on analogy; however,
the riddle was a question that asked for the identifi cation of
common qualities between diff erent objects and situations.
Th e riddle was part of evening storytelling, and it, too, had an
educational dimension as it helped to develop perception.
Th e oral tradition is another form of literature passed
down from one generation to the next. For many societies
this form of oral literature was a kind of specialized knowl-
edge controlled by a specifi c group identifi ed as such by the
community. For example, many of the Mande speakers of
West Africa had a socially constructed cultural caste of story-
tellers known as the djelw, who possessed this specialized
knowledge. Many other groups also had this specialized job,
called by the French term griot. Identifi ed by families, these
storytellers or local historians were charged with the respon-
sibility of maintaining the accuracy of the tradition as it was
passed down from generation to generation. Some families
kept this knowledge for the king, the royal griot, while others
kept knowledge for the local community. Each family or com-
munity had its own cultural historians with its own version of
the facts that amplifi ed its own contribution to the tale.
Nevertheless, while the emphasis of the story may have
shift ed from community to community or performer to per-
former, the facts of the story were accurately remembered and
presented. Th e audience judged the purveyor of the oral tra-
dition based on their own memories of these stories that hadliterature: Africa 641