its beginning is lost. It is followed on the papyrus by the only
complete copy of the latter text. Th e “Teaching of the Vizier
Ptah-hotep” is also preserved on two additional papyri and a
wooden tablet. Th is work is a very long instruction and con-
sists of 37 maxims, a prologue, and an epilogue. Th e main
themes of this work are self-control, moderation, kindness,
generosity, justice, and truthfulness. Both of these two texts
are thought to date to the Sixth Dynasty. At this time the evo-
lution of the written word had come into its own and exhib-
ited ma ny si mi la r it ies w it h t he work of t he succeed i ng per iod ,
the Classical Period of Egyptian literature.
Th e instructions are some of the few texts that identify
an author. It is generally thought that the people to whom the
texts are attributed are genuine people, for example, Prince
Hardjedef, the son of King Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty (ca.
2575–ca. 2465 b.c.e.), and the vizier Ptahhotep, who lived un-
der King Isesi of the Fift h Dynasty. Some scholars, however,
suggest that the names are pseudepigraphic, meaning that
these were false names. Th ese attributions do not correspond
to other dating criteria, namely, the language in which the text
was written. Th e “Instruction of Hardjedef ” contains certain
archaic phrases that may indicate a Fift h Dynasty date, but
its structure makes a Fourth Dynasty date seem unlikely. Th e
“Instructions Addressed to Kagemni” and the “Teaching of
the Vizier Ptahhotep” are written in Middle Egyptian; there-
fore, they could not date to the early Old Kingdom, at least
not in the form in which they are preserved. Th is situation in
turn presents a whole new set of problems for dating because
there is no parallel for an Old Egyptian text being translated
into Middle Egyptian. Likewise, the mention of King Huni,
the last king of the Th ird Dynasty (ca. 2649–ca. 2575 b.c.e.),
and Snefru, the fi rst king of the Fourth Dynasty, at the end of
the “Instruction Addressed to Kagemni” confuses the matter
further, in that the art form is more evolved in this text than
in that of Hardjedef. Th ese Old Kingdom examples inspired
scribes to continue this genre, and it became very popular.
Th e situation was slightly diff erent in the royal sphere
in the Old Kingdom. Kings had no tomb inscriptions. SomePage from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, Th ebes, Egypt (ca. 1300 b.c.e.) (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)
644 literature: Egypt