pottery and murals. Th e central part of Popol Vuh deals
with the myth of the Hero Twins and is considered the
most ancient part of the text. Depictions of events from
the Popul Vuh are, in fact, frequently found on numerous
monuments from the Pacifi c slope region of Mexico and
Guatemala, home during the Preclassic Period to the so-
called Izapan style (from the archaeological site of Izapa in
Chiapas, Mexico).
Th e creation of maize, conceived as the capture, death,
and resurrection of the maize god, is narrated in the Popol
Vuh through the story of Hun Hunahpu, a demigod who
went to the underworld and was kidnapped and killed by
Lords of Death. His sons, the Hero Twins, came to his res-
cue; when they revived him, he sprouted like a young corn
plant. He cracked through the surface of the earth, which is
represented by either a turtle shell or a serpent. Th e whole
story takes place in the underworld, a primordial place rep-
resented as a dark and cold sea. Stelae (vertical stone slabs
decorated with low-carved relief) from Izapa depict the
maize god resurrection. A man wearing a godly mask is seen
emerging from a large pool of water, arms outstretched,
while two fl anking fi gures help his ascension by pulling
a cord he is grasping. Scholars believe that the masks the
characters are wearing signal that they are performers (rul-
ers or priests) impersonating well-known characters from
the Popol Vuh.
Among the Maya of the Classic Period (150–650 c.e.) the
poetic tradition of the Popol Vuh continued to fl ourish, and it
is oft en found depicted on vases, found mostly in tombs, that
reveal an important aspect of Maya ceremonial and courtly
life. Images and text strictly interact. Although only a few
inscriptions have been translated so far, episodes from the
ancient epic deeds of the Hero Twins abound, including the
resurrection of the maize god. Th e refi ned and private set-
ting of the vase images point to a courtly tradition that was
not concerned as much with propaganda as it was with sheer
entertainment.
Teotihuacán was the most important center in Meso-
america during the Classic Period, fl ourishing between 1 and
650 c.e. It was perhaps the largest city in the ancient Ameri-
cas, and its domination was felt well beyond the borders of
the Valley of Mexico, where its ruins can still be visited. Maya
cities to the south largely borrowed from Teotihuacán art its
symbols and ideology, pointing to close political, economic,
and perhaps military ties between central and southern Me-
soamerica. Archaeologists have not as yet discovered writ-
ten historical documents from the metropolis, and it seems
most likely that if written records ever existed, they were de-
stroyed in later times. Nevertheless, mural painting, which
covers the walls of many residential compounds throughout
the city, bear traces of what was probably a well-developed
literature, mostly revolving around fertility and agricultural
themes.
Depictions include supernatural or animal fi gures most
oft en depicted in profi le and proceeding in procession. Richly
dressed, they seem to be actively involved in sacrifi cial ritual
activities, as indicated by the thorns and incense they oft en
carry. Speech scrolls, indicating chanting, are oft en coming
out of their mouth. As in later Aztec art, fl owers and green
jade decorations attached to the scrolls indicate poetry. Th e
fl ower and jade metaphor refers to the preciousness of the
words uttered during chanting and praying. Maize decora-
tions may further allude to prayers said to spur the growth
of crops.
A striking feature of Teotihuacán mural painting is its
repetitiveness. Within large borders of elaborate abstract or
representational designs unfold series of very similar depic-
tions of animals, plants, or human fi gures, which create pat-
terns found throughout the rooms of the same compound.
Templates may vary in specifi c iconographic elements (that is,
symbolic representation), especially garments, adornments,
and colors. Some scholars suggest that the standardization of
Teotihuacán representation can be linked to a writing sys-
tem, one that was perhaps more fully developed in other me-
dia such as books. Repetitions and variations in painting may
refl ect other well-known and similar conventions of Amerin-
dian poetry noted earlier.
Murals from the residential compound of Techinan-
titla, a compound in Teotihuacán, now found in fragments
in museums all over the world, off er a striking example. Four
feathered serpents, with long, undulating bodies, curl around
a rectangular room. Th e bright yellow, green, and blue of the
feather mantle can still be appreciated. Th e bodies end with
elaborate jeweled rattle tails. From the mouths, streams of
waters, fl owers, and precious stones pour out. Below the ser-
pents, which serve as a border, is a row of trees depicted in
repeated series of nine. Th ey all have the same basic shape
and exposed roots, while variations occur in the fl owers and
fruits they bear.
Th ese kinds of visual representations have been seen in re-
lation to known incantations from the later Aztec (1250–1521)
period. Plants were used for medicinal purposes, and their
curative eff ect was sometimes translated into special qualities
that were invoked during rituals. Nine was a highly signifi cant
number among Mesoamerican civilizations, especially related
to the underworld. Shaman-curers were oft en said to enter this
world in a state of trance when curing a patient. Finally, trees
were important symbols of genealogy and clans. Techinantitla
murals may depict a lineage song, a common form of poetry
that reckoned and celebrated dynastic histories.See also art; ceramics and pottery; death and burial
practices; drama and theater; education; empires and
dynasties; festivals; language; music and musical in-
struments; religion and cosmology; social organiza-
tion; war and conquest; writing.666 literature: The Americas