In addition to the lists of professions, which were kept
in scholarly libraries, a no less important source of informa-
tion is provided by the vast amount of archival material. Th is
consists primarily of legal and administrative documents re-
corded and kept by the major economic institutions (palaces
and temples) as well as by private individuals and families.
Th ese archives of cuneiform tablets shed a great deal of light
on the range of craft smen and professionals and on their so-
cial backgrounds, the conditions under which they worked,
and the way in which they were organized. Lists of rations al-
lotted to workers are particularly informative. Occasionally,
archaeological evidence for specialist workshops has been
found, such as the remains of potters’ kilns.
Th e range of occupations established in the course of
over 3,000 years of written history in the region is vast. Some
are familiar—baker, brewer, potter—but others arose as a re-
sponse to the specifi c needs and material conditions of the
day and have no close parallel in the 21st century. Many es-
sential craft s were passed down from father to son, but some
skills were taught to apprentices by experts. Cuneiform tab-
lets recording apprenticeship contracts have survived, and
they set out the penalty to be paid by the master if he failed
to teach the apprentice properly. (Th e possibility that the ap-
prentice might be a poor learner does not seem to have been
considered.)
Th e palaces and temples employed large numbers of spe-
cialized craft smen and skilled workers. Food preparation was
one of the most important areas of activity. Bakers, cooks,
butchers, and brewers were needed, and setting out the tables
for the meals of the gods was a skilled occupation. Th e grind-
ing of fl our was an onerous task oft en performed by prison-
ers. Oil pressers produced the oil (from sesame seed) needed
in food preparation and for other purposes, such as treating
wooden objects, making perfume, and fi lling oil lamps.
Th e production of textiles and fi nished garments was an-
other important craft activity. Weavers worked in wool and
linen, and a variety of garments had to be made up by spe-
cialist tailors, not just for human use but also to clothe the
divine statues in the temples. Th e cloth that they used could
be dyed by the dyers in a variety of shades made from miner-
als and plants. Evidence for washermen and washerwomen
is also found, especially in the temple archives, since caring
for the precious divine garments was vital. Leather workers
had to treat the skins of dead animals and manufacture items
out of them, such as sandals and various kinds of contain-
ers. Metalworkers manufactured the tools and utensils used
in the everyday activities of agriculture and canal digging.
Goldsmiths, silversmiths, and jewelers produced fi nery for
members of the elite and for adorning the statues of the gods
in the temples. Raw materials that were not available locally
would be procured by merchants specializing in overland
trade with distant regions.
Construction involved a variety of skilled occupations.
Th e design and layout of the great monumental structures,
such as the ziggurats, palaces, and temples, not to mention the
defensive walls surrounding the cities, required highly skilled
architects, surveyors, and site managers. Th e ancient terms for
these kinds of professions can be identifi ed in the cuneiform
tablets, though it is not always easy to determine the exact
range of duties that went with each particular job. In much of
the region mud brick was used for building, though kiln-fi red
bricks were preferred for the more prestigious structures of
palaces and temples. Brick making was a skilled activity, but
usually a seasonal one. Carpenters and joiners were needed to
manufacture the doors and other fi ttings and to prepare the
beams used in making the roof. Furniture is written about in
the cuneiform tablets, and occasionally the remains of intri-
cately made pieces have been found in excavation. Usually,
however, wooden items do not survive, with the result that
much information about craft smanship has been lost.
In southern Mesopotamia, where reeds grew in abun-
dance, they were widely used in construction and in the
manufacturing of such household items as baskets and mats.
Specialist reed workers had to prepare the reeds by soaking,
peeling, and bleaching them before they could be used. Some
structures were made from reed rather than brick, a building
tradition that survived into modern times in the marshes of
southern Iraq.
A great many people would have been employed in ag-
riculture and animal husbandry. In southern Mesopotamia
orchard keepers were required to look aft er the date palm
groves. Th roughout the region the cultivation of grain fi elds
needed teams of plowmen to work with the ox-driven plows;
these teams oft en operated in family groups, including chil-
dren as young as fi ve years old.
Th e occupations practiced by women are less well docu-
mented. At certain periods women are known to have fi gured
prominently in the textile industry. Occasionally, women
were employed to serve as wet nurses for children who had
lost their mothers. Women from wealthier families could own
property and conduct business. Priestesses are also known.
Th e army was vital in defending the land and conquering
new territories; among the troops many specialized roles are
known. Finally, there were a number of professions open only
to very learned individuals. Th ese men would have under-
gone lengthy training in the scribal schools before complet-
ing further, specialized training in a particular fi eld. Scholars
at the royal court, such as astronomers, exorcists, physicians,
and diviners, played an important role in advising the king.
Th is is especially well illustrated by a large group of letters
from scholars to the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (r. 680–669
b.c.e.), which have been found in excavations at the city of
Nineveh alongside many other documents and literary works
from the royal libraries.ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
BY KIRK H. BEETZ
Th e number of ancient Indian occupations can seem bewil-
dering, with occupations oft en hav ing numerous subcategoriesoccupations: Asia and the Pacific 811