varied throughout Europe, with small tribes operating in
Scandinavia and larger tribal confederations being formed
in Gaul and Britain, especially to withstand the Romans. In
both places the tribal chiefs Vercingetorix (d. 46 b.c.e.) and
Caratacus (fl. fi rst century c.e.), respectively, were able to rely
on large war machines to try to stop the Romans invading
their lands. Th ere was only a small middle class at the time,
consisting of merchants and traders, a few doctors or medical
practitioners, and also those connected with religious wor-
ship—for the Celts, these included the Druids, who led the
people in religious observations. Th e merchants varied con-
siderably, from those who sailed long distances to those who
sold goods from one village to the next. It is quite clear from
the near uniformity of some of the Celtic designs that trad-
ing must have been extensive. Wine was a major commod-
ity, with craft smen turning out elaborate wine fl agons. Th ere
was also a demand for tattoo artists, with Celts oft en wearing
bright tattoos.
In some parts of Europe, such as around the silver mines
of Spain or the tin mines of Cornwall, England, there were
many who earned their pay as miners. In other parts of Eu-
rope, hunters, fi shermen, or sailors predominated, depending
on the locality and opportunities.
With many wars, a signifi cant number of men were sol-
diers. A large number fought as or when needed and spent the
rest of t hei r t i me as fa r mers, but i n some pa r ts of Eu rope t here
were professional soldiers. Th e best-known examples of pro-
fessional soldiers are the Balearic slingers of the Punic Wars.
Th ese were men who were trained from youth to use slings
in battle. Similarly, there were professional fi ghters in other
parts of Europe, such as the many Spanish men who served
in the Carthaginian army or the many others who served as
legionnaires in the Roman army or in the auxiliary units.
Th e advent of Roman rule over much of Europe led to
a signifi cant change in the nature of everyday life. Th e large
armies that the Romans maintained throughout their em-
pire, especially on the borders, such as on the Danube River
or in northern England, resulted in livelihoods for many peo-
ple in supplying the soldiers with their needs. Local people
built and maintained Roman military bases, provisioning
them with food and water and then providing services for the
soldiers. Initially, these soldiers had to be Roman citizens or
men capable of becoming citizens upon their retirement aft er
25 years’ service; with the Edict of Caracalla in 212 c.e. the
army was opened up to all, and the previously established dis-
tinction between legionnaires and auxiliaries ended.
More towns were established, with a higher number of
people constituting the middle class and thus becoming in-
volved in the production of lu xur y goods. Th e Roman Empire
also brought about the need for gladiators, charioteers, and
other “sportsmen,” and created a demand for musicians and
writers. Th e Roman Empire was to change the nature of slav-
ery. In Celtic Europe slaves constituted such a small part of
the population as to have no real importance. By contrast, the
Romans had vast numbers of slaves, many working on farms
and in mines, manning galleys, looking aft er houses, training
children, and cooking for families.
Th e Dacians, the Th racians, the Germans, the Goths,
and the Vandals all had large numbers of warriors in their
population, similar to those of the warring Celtic tribes of
the Bronze Age and Iron Age. Th e numbers of weapons used
in wars against the Romans must have led to the mass manu-
facture on a scale previously unknown beyond the Roman
Empire. Th e same mass-production techniques also would
have been applied to footwear, uniforms, camp equipment,
and materials needed for transportation.GREECE
BY JEFFREY S. CARNES
Farming is the most basic occupation, and the development
of other occupations depends on the ability of farmers to gen-
erate surplus food, that is, the economic capital to fund the
acquisition of other goods. Th roughout Greek antiquity (as
in most preindustrial societies) farming remained the most
common occupation, and farmers were well represented in
all social and economic classes. At one end of the scale were
small landholders engaged in subsistence farming. Given
the arid climate and poor soil of most of Greece, it was not
uncommon for agricultural crises to turn landholders into
sharecroppers or even slaves. By contrast, the wealthiest citi-
zens of most Greek city-states were farmers, at least nomi-
nally. Farming was generally considered a suitable occupation
for wellborn people, who tended to share a disdain for craft s
and business.Spinning and weaving tools, Iron Age England (800 b.c.e. to 50 c.e.)
(© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)
814 occupations: Greece