clude those connected to birth and naming, coming of age,
marriage, agriculture, change of seasons, and death. In many
parts of Africa there are also special ceremonies held to honor
one’s ancestors. Th ese traditions run very deep, but it is oft en
diffi cult to tell exactly how old they are.
At least one anthropologist has argued that the wide-
spread African ritual of divination has roots traceable to
Neolithic times. Divination refers to techniques used to tell
the future. As practiced in contemporary times, it generally
involves the casting of shells, nuts, or bones and the recita-
tion of special phrases or poems that are associated with each
particular pattern that can possibly appear. Such divination
requires a prodigious memory and implies a special period of
training between a master and an apprentice.
No matter what defi nition is used, there are many dif-
ferent African religions. Most of these are fully indigenous
systems, developed completely in Africa. However, Africa has
also long been the home of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
In fact, one could fi nd communities of Jews, Christians, or
Muslims in Africa quite soon aft er these religions fi rst began
to be practiced. Islam, however, did not begin as a religion
until the time of Muhammad in the seventh century aft er the
beginning of the Christian era. Obviously, Islam could not
have infl uenced Africa before this time.
EARLY RELIGION
One of the earliest forms of evidence about religious belief
is the demonstration that the dead were intentionally buried
and that valuable objects were placed into the graves of the
deceased. Th is type of discovery suggests both that the liv-
ing maintained an emotional connection with the dead and
also that they may have thought there was something beyond
death. Archaeologists have shown that human beings were
using colorful dyes for funeral purposes tens of thousands of
years ago in Africa. Th is is supported by excavations at Twin
Rivers, Zambia, where red, yellow, and other shades of ocher
have been found in abundance. Ocher is a naturally occur-
ring, powdery compound that can be smeared onto the body
directly or mixed with water or grease to form paint. Th e
practice of using ocher and other natural pigments to paint
the body for ritual and aesthetic purposes is one that contin-
ues in many parts of Africa up to contemporary times.
Art and decoration are associated with religious behav-
ior because they help in making powerful symbolic connec-
tions. It is through such symbolic connections that feelings
of the divine are linked with everyday activities. Scholars of
comparative religion have shown that ocher, in its red form,
was widely used throughout the ancient world as a symbol
of blood and life. Other examples of apparently symbolic
connections are found in much of the ancient rock art that
is widely distributed throughout the continent. Many of the
rock paintings have to do with the connections humans made
with animals. During the days when hunting and gathering
was the way of life, people all over the world developed a
spiritual connection particularly with the largest and most
dramatic of the animals around them. African rock art can
be divided into diff erent phases depending on the animals
that are most oft en represented. In one phase, for example,
representations of a gigantic buff alo called Bubalus were
commonly featured. Th is period extended from about 6,000
to 11,0000 years ago.
Th ere are a few cases in which connections have been
established between ancient forms of art and the religions
of contemporary people. For example, a hexagonally shaped
jewel stone found in a prehistoric site called Tin Felki in West
Africa has been shown to be identical to precious stones used
by Fula women today as fertility charms. Even stronger evi-
dence links the practices of the ancient rock artists of South
Africa and the religion of the people commonly referred to
as Bushmen. Most observers believe that the rock art and en-
gravings of southern Africa were made by the ancestors of
the Bushmen.
Th e Bushmen, or Khoisan, were hunters and gatherers
who made their living off the land. A number of paintings
found widely in the South African region show scenes sug-
gestive of the trance-dances that are still practiced by some
contemporary Bushmen. In these dances the dancers enter
into an altered state of consciousness by evoking the spirit
of powerful animals. Dancers are thus spiritually energized
and oft en feel they have the power of healing touch in their
hands. Based on his observations of such rituals, the South
African rock art specialist David Lewis-Williams has devel-
oped a theory that all the early rock art in the world involved
some elements of trance. Other analysts have shown how par-
ticular rock paintings refl ect concerns about fertility or were
expressions of hunting magic.
Two of the most important fi gures in the religion of
the contemporary Khoisan are Mantis and Eland. Mantis is
a trickster god who is capable of transforming himself into
other life forms. Eland, a favorite of Mantis, is also thought
to have special spiritual potency. It is the spirit of the eland
antelope, in particular, that contemporary trance-dancers
seek to encounter in their altered states of consciousness. Sig-
nifi cantly, eland paintings are commonly featured in ancient
South African rock art.POLYTHEISTIC RELIGIONS
Civilizations with kings, queens, and other ranks of nobility
oft en have a religion that is also divided into diff erent ranks
of gods and spirit beings. Religions with a hierarchy of gods
and an elaborate mythology about their activities are called
polytheistic religions. Th e complete list of the gods of a poly-
theistic religion is called its pantheon. Th e ancient Egyptians
practiced a polytheistic religion with a very elaborate pan-
theon. Many other African peoples were also pantheistic,
though their pantheons varied. In reference to contemporary
times, it has been observed that those African religions that
are pantheistic also have a supreme being who is all power-
ful, but distant from human aff airs. Th e lesser divinities are
merely manifestations of the absolute powers of the supremereligion and cosmology: Africa 833