of the state, or the people, and of the army during times of
peace). Th ese gods were called the Capitoline Triad because
t hey were worshipped in a temple on Capitoline Hi l l in Rome.
Historian call this particular group of gods the Archaic Triad
because a later Capitoline Triad emerged, consisting of Jupi-
ter, Juno (the queen of the gods), and Minerva (the goddess
of wisdom).
Just below these more prestigious fl amens were those
associated with less important gods and goddesses, such as
Janus and Vesta. Vesta was the goddess of the hearth, and in
the ancient Roman Forum a fi re, the “hearth” of the state,
was kept perpetually burning. It was attended by a group of
women called the vestal virgins, who were obligated to main-
tain the site for a period of 30 years and whose chief duty
was to keep the fi re burning. In the home, wives and mothers
honored Vesta, prayers to Vesta were off ered before and aft er
meals, and every town had a perpetual fi re in honor of her.
When the Romans established a new colony, coals from the
“mother fi re” in Rome were carried to the vestal hearth in the
new location.
Some of the other major gods and goddesses of the Ro-
man pantheon included Apollo, the god of the sun, festivities,
music, and dancing; Bacchus, the god of orgies and drinking;
Cupid, the god of romance and love; Diana, the goddess of
the moon and hunting; Mercury, the messenger god; Nep-
tune, the god of the sea; Venus, the goddess of sex and beauty;
Pluto, the king of the underworld; Saturn, the god of agricul-
ture; and Vulcan, the god of smithing.
RELIGION IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
Religion during the early monarchial period of Rome (the pe-
riod from the founding of Rome up to 509 b.c.e., when the
Roman Republic was created) was therefore fairly simple. It
was based on a belief in animistic spirits that infl uenced hu-
man activities, particularly those associated with the home
and the farm. While public worship was conducted under the
auspices of the king, religious belief was centered in the home.
A small class of priests was responsible for ensuring that the
major gods were honored, but in rural Rome a family’s senior
male was responsible for maintaining religious observances
in the home. Much of early Rome’s religion was inherited
from other nations, blending native Etruscan religious beliefs
with those of the Greeks.
Religious matters became remarkably more complex
during the period of the Roman Republic and beyond. Th e
early founders of the republic were the fi rst to give thought
to the modern doctrine of the separation of church and state.
During the earlier monarchial period the king was Rome’s
chief religious fi gure. Under the republic religious duties were
separated from political duties, though religion continued to
aff ect political decisions. Th e founders of the republic created
a priesthood called rex sacrorum, meaning “king of rites.”
Priests carried out the duties of the earlier kings, but, to pre-
vent them from abusing their authority, they could not hold
public offi ce or become members of the Senate.
Several classes of priests existed to carry out various
duties. Th e most important of these classes was the College
of Pontiff s, led by the pontifex maximus, the chief religious
fi gure in Rome. Until the third century b.c.e. the pontifex
maximus was chosen by members of the college. Later the
position became a publicly elected one. Th e pontifex maxi-
mus supervised the rex sacrorum, the vestal virgins, and the
major fl amens. As noted earlier, each fl amen was associated
with an individual god and carried out the rituals performed
to honor that god.
Th roughout the late Roman Republic the requirements
for becoming a pontiff changed. At fi rst only members of the
patrician class could become pontiff s. In about 300 b.c.e.,
however, membership was opened to the lower class of ple-
beians. Although the offi ce of pontifex maximus came to be
publicly elected, not anyone could be a candidate. A candidate
had to be a member of the College of Pontiff s and be nomi-
nated by members of the college. Members were appointed
to the college by existing members, so the entire process re-
mained somewhat closed. Not until 104 b.c.e. were pontiff s
elected by the public.
Despite this opening of the process, most members of
the College of Pontiff s were members of the social elite. Many
were also prominent ambassadors, politicians, and generals.
Perhaps the best example is Julius Caesar (100–44 b.c.e.), one
of Rome’s most famous emperors, who served as pontifex
maximus early in his career. Evidence suggests, however, that
these prominent people did not abuse their religious author-
ity. For example, no single prominent family ever had more
than one member in the College of Pontiff s.
Th e College of Pontiff s had a number of duties. In many
respects, the college could be said to have assumed any duties
that were not fulfi lled by other colleges. Th us, members of the
College of Pontiff s were experts in Roman law. Th ey knew, for
example, the exact wording of legal documents that had to be
used to gain access to courts of law. Th e college also main-
tained the calendar and records of public events. Members
supervised such legal matters as burials, wills, adoptions, and
inheritances. It also supervised the vestal virgins, public ritu-
als, and rituals having to do with sacrifi ces and vows. Finally,
the College of Pontiff s supervised the ludi Romani, or Roman
Games, held annually in September in honor of the god Jupi-
ter beginning in 366 b.c.e.
While the College of Pontiff s was the principal admin-
istrative arm of Roman religion, the College of Augurs rep-
resented the eff orts of Romans to communicate with their
gods. Th e chief duty of the augurs was to interpret the will of
the gods through various rituals and omens. Th e word au-
gur survives in modern English in such expressions as “that
augurs well,” meaning that something promises to turn out
well.
To understand the position of the augur, it is necessary
to understand how Romans conceived their relationship with
their gods. In modern life religious devotion generally sug-
gests that believers submit themselves to God’s will and thatreligion and cosmology: Rome 859