Th e priests in the College of Fetiales had a single job:
to ensure that when Rome declared war, it did so properly.
Th e procedure for declaring war was complex. Four of the 20
members of the College of Fetiales were dispatched to the for-
eign nation with demands for restitution and threats of war.
If a month passed with no response, the fetiales declared war.
Th e fetiales then sacrifi ced a pig, returned to the border of the
country’s land, and hurled a spear over the border into the
land. It was believed that in this way, Rome’s wars would be
just. Beginning in 280 b.c.e. Rome thought it was impractical
for the fetiales to hurl a spear into a far-fl ung foreign land, so
the ritual was conducted at the temple of Bellona, a goddess of
war, which the Romans thought of as “enemy” territory.
RELIGION IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Th e period modern historians refer to as the Roman Empire
began in the fi rst century b.c.e. In the early centuries of the
empire a number of changes took place in Roman religion.
One was the greater popularity of foreign cults from such
countries as Iran and Egypt. Th e second was the growth of
the Imperial Cult. Th e third was a growing trend toward
monotheism (belief in one supreme God) and the eventual
conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity.
Th e Romans ruled a vast empire that contained many
diff erent cultures and traditions. Accordingly, Romans were
exposed to a variety of religious beliefs. Many of these were
absorbed into the Roman belief system. In particular, cults
from such places as Iran, India, the Iberian Peninsula (Spain
and Portugal), Britain, and Egypt became popular.
Several examples could be cited. One was the cult of Cy-
bele, referring to a Phrygian goddess regarded as an earth
mother and the goddess of fertility, caves, mountains, wild
animals, and nature in general. (Phrygia was an ancient
country in Asia Minor.) In Rome she became Magna Mater,
or “great mother.” Many of Cybele’s followers took part in
ecstatic ceremonies that included dancing, drumming, and
drinking. She was offi cially adopted by Rome in 203 b.c.e. A
second major cult was that of Isis, a goddess from Egyptian
mythology. Th roughout Egypt and in many places outside
Egypt, Isis was the center of a mystery cult—that is, a cult
that believed it had secret, mystic knowledge and wisdom
that could be known only impartially and intuitively. Many
Romans regarded Isis as an aspect of Cybele. Th e emperor
Caligula (r. 37–41 c.e.) was an enthusiastic follower of the Isis
cult and established a festival in her honor. Another foreign
mystery cult that gained popularity in Rome was the cult of
Mithras, a Persian god associated with the practice of astrol-
ogy. Finally, Sol Invictus, meaning “the undefeated sun,” was
a pagan nature cult adopted by a succession of Roman emper-
ors to emphasize their relationship with the sun god.
One of the most important cults during the Roman Em-
pire, however, was native. It is generally referred to as the
Imperial Cult and refers to the belief that the emperor was
divine. Th e purpose of this cult was to strengthen the loy-
alty of the Roman people and Rome’s many colonies to their
emperor. Among the emperors who were deifi ed in this way
were Augustus (r. 27 b.c.e.–14 c.e.), Claudius I (r. 41–54 c.e.),
Vespasian (r. 69–79 c.e.), and Titus (r. 79–81 c.e.). Th e dei-
fi cation of these emperors was declared by the Roman Sen-
ate aft er the emperor’s death. Although the practice seems
strange in modern life, ancient peoples, particularly those in
the eastern half of the Roman Empire, had a long tradition of
regarding their kings and emperors as having a special rela-
tionship with the gods, and many prominent Romans during
the empire began to claim descent from the gods. Many Ro-
man public buildings, including temples, baths, theaters, and
arenas, were built as monuments to the Imperial Cult.CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE
For a period of some three centuries Christians were cruelly
persecuted by the Roman Empire. Rome regarded the new re-
ligion as a threat to its power. Emperor Nero (r. 54–68 c.e.)
claimed that the Great Fire of Rome in July 64 c.e. was the
work of Christians, though some historians believe that he
started the fi re because he wanted to rebuild Rome in his own
image. Under the emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305 c.e.) the
persecution of Christians was particularly severe.
Despite this persecution, Christian missionaries won
converts and created Christian communities throughout
the empire. Th e persecution of Christians ended abruptly
in 313 c.e. when the emperor Constantine I (r. 306–337 c.e.)
converted to Christianity. Some historians believe that his
conversion was sincere; others argue that he converted only
because he could see the growing infl uence of Christianity
and wanted to preserve his power. In any event, he estab-
lished religious freedom in the empire in 313 c.e. with the
Edict of Milan. In 325 c.e. he called the Council of Nicea,
the Catholic Church’s fi rst ecumenical council, which estab-
lished some of the bedrock doctrines of the church. Th en in
380 c.e. the emperor Th eodosius I (r. 379–395 c.e.) issued an
edict that made Christianity the offi cial religion of the em-
pire. In 391 c.e. Th eodosius outlawed all other religious cults,
and many ancient Roman temples were either destroyed or
rededicated to Christian saints. Th e Pantheon, for example,
had been a temple dedicated to all the Roman gods but be-
came a Christian church dedicated to all the Christian saints.
In the fi ft h century the Roman Empire fractured, the western
portion coming to an end with the abdication of the emperor
Romulus Augustulus (r. 475–476 c.e.) in 476 c.e. Although
the empire came to an end, Christianity survived. Th e most
dominant Christian fi gure in Europe was the bishop of Rome,
which remained the seat of the Catholic Church.THE AMERICAS
BY KEITH JORDAN
Reconstructing the religious beliefs, cosmologies, and ritual
practices of the ancient peoples of the New World is a diffi -
cult and uncertain task because of the nature of the surviving
evidence. Th e majority of early Native American cultures didreligion and cosmology: The Americas 861