EUROPE
BY JUSTIN CORFIELD AND MICHAEL J. O’NEAL
During the Mesolithic (ca. 10,000–ca. 4,000 b.c.e.) and Neo-
lithic (ca. 7000–ca. 2000 b.c.e.), the emergence of sedentary
settlements led to their connection by trails and pathways
through the forested landscape and along major rivers. Th e
earliest-known constructed pathway is the wooden causeway
across marshy terrain in southwestern England called the
Sweet Track. Th e wood used in the construction of the Sweet
Track has been determined by tree-ring dating to have been
cut in the spring of 3806 b.c.e. Th roughout Europe in the
Bronze Age (ca. 2800–ca. 700 b.c.e.) and Iron Age (ca. 1000
b.c.e.–ca. 500 c.e.), increased trade led to the establishment
of well-traveled routes between settlements, and wheeled ve-
hicles and draft animals came into use. An increasing num-
ber of trackways and causeways were built across marshy
ground and shallow water, where the damp conditions have
led to their preservation. Open bodies of deep water, such as
rivers and straits, still posed obstacles, however, and crossing
them required watercraft , since true bridge-building tech-
niques had not yet been developed.
Th e Celts formalized the process of building roads in
many areas, especially around larger settlements. Groups of
people were involved in building specifi c roads, which of-
ten were covered with timber, brushwood, or stones so they
would not turn into quagmires when it rained. Th is was es-
pecially important in marshy areas such as Th e Fens in Eng-
land. Many Celts in Gaul and Britain traveled long distances
by chariot, and pathways that were wide enough for a horse-
ma n or person on foot eventua l ly were w idened for ox-pu l led
wagons or horse-drawn chariots. Th e Roman general Julius
Caesar (100–44 b.c.e.), in his Gallic Wars, refers to this use,
noting that his main opponent during the second invasion of
Britain in 54 b.c.e. was planning to wait for the Romans to
send out their cavalry before using the chariots to attack “out
of the woods by well-known lanes and pathways.”
Some of the Celts’ most heavily used roads were exten-
sive. One coastal road began in modern-day Genoa, Italy, and
traveled along the Mediterranean coast through Marseilles
and Narbonne in France to Cadiz in southern Spain. Another
important road in England was the Ridgeway, which followed
the crest of the Wessex Downs and had operated as a trade
route beginning in Neolithic times. A number of important
paths and passes crossed mountains, especially the Pyrenees
and the Alps. Th ey were eventually expanded and used by
large armed convoys, perhaps the most famous being that of
the Carthaginian general Hannibal (247–183 b.c.e.), along
with his elephants, in 218 b.c.e.
Many of the Bronze Age and Iron Age roads and path-
ways became major roads used by the Romans and subse-
quent civilizations. In addition, many roads that fell into
disuse have been unearthed or can be seen by aerial archaeol-
ogy. Entrances to Iron Age forts were particularly important,
and the roads were oft en lined with fl int, giving an impres-
sion similar to that of cobblestones, which allowed carts and
chariots to cross the ground easily.
One road that existed before the Romans but that was
later used by the Romans is the so-called Amber Road. No
one knows when the Amber Road was constructed—although
“constructed” is the wrong word, for the Amber Road was es-
sentially a network of paths or routes that were carved out
over time primarily for the transport of amber. Th e roads were
not developed in the sense of having been constructed using
principles of road technology. However, generations of foot
travelers, beasts of burden, and carts created the roadways. In
this respect, it was like the Silk Road that ran through Asia
or the Salt Road of southern Europe, especially Italy. Amber,
a fossil resin, was a valued resource in ancient Europe and
around the Mediterranean region, used in many ornamental
objects, such as beads and even in coins, primarily because it
could be brought to a high polish. Long before the Romans
arrived, Europeans had conducted an active trade in amber,
transporting it over these routes.
Th e Amber Road comprised a number of stretches that
connected various portions of Europe. Much of the Amber
Road consisted of overland routes, but to the extent that it
was a trade route, it also included stretches of rivers. One
main route extended east-west and connected Europe withSection of the Sweet Track, the oldest prehistoric timber trackway in
Britain (Neolithic, 3807/3806 b.c.e.), from Somerset, England (© Th e
Trustees of the British Museum)
888 roads and bridges: Europe