Among the hunting-and-gathering peoples who inhabit the
forests of central Africa—so-called Pygmy peoples such as
the Mbuti of Congo and the Aka of the Central African Re-
public—the forest is thought to be a divine being or spiritual
force. Many peoples of West Africa also consider portions of
the forest sacred, while other groups, like the Tswana, con-
sider the homeland of their ancestors to be the most sacred
ground. Th e elders and keepers of traditional knowledge
among the Mijikenda of Kenya also work to protect spe-
cial areas of forests that they associate with their ancestors.
Here it is diffi cult to tease apart today’s spiritual inspiration
and imagination from the realities of the past. For example,
while oral tradition suggests the Mijikenda sacred forests
were inhabited by their ancestors for at least the past 10 gen-
erations, some archaeologists think they were occupied more
recently. On the other hand, other experts think the occupa-
tion goes back to antiquity, much further than oral tradition
suggests. Similarly, while it is known that people have inhab-
ited the forests of central Africa for thousands of years, it is
not known at what point people began to consider the forest
itself as sacred.
Finally, it should not be forgotten that both Christianity
and Judaism established early roots in North Africa and in
Ethiopia. Today a special treasure house near the Church of
Saint Mary at Axum is said by many followers of the Ethio-
pian Orthodox Church to house the Ark of the Covenant, the
chest that contains the original Ten Commandments.EGYPT
BY CHRISTINE END
Th e ancient Egyptian worldview was embodied in the con-
cept of maat, or divine order. Under maat, Egypt was at the
center of the universe; night, day, and the seasons were per-
fectly governed, and the cosmos was harmoniously balanced.
Appeasing the gods who presided over every aspect of the
Egyptian world was necessary to perpetuate maat. A goddess,
also named Maat, personifi ed the concept. Kings frequently
included “beloved of Maat” in their titles to show their devo-
tion, and surviving reliefs show kings off ering small Maat fi g-
ures to a variety of gods. By giving a fi gure of Maat, the king
was ensuring that the deity would uphold maat and therefore
Egypt’s position in the universe.
Th e king was not the only one to appeal to the gods; of-
ferings were a part of life for the ancient Egyptians. Exca-
vations revealing abundant off erings indicate an especially
sacred site. Individuals left gift s at specifi c locations to vener-
ate a particular god, to ask for help, or to mark a pilgrimage
to a revered place. Th ese off erings could have been amulets,
statues, mummifi ed animals, notes or spells written on pot-
tery, foodstuff s, off ering tables, or poured unguents or pure
sand. Some off erings were much larger, such as shrines, ste-
lae, or even temples. Th ese places were considered sacred be-
cause of mythological or religious connotations, the presence
of exploitable resources (such as water or metal) in the area,or symbolic natural or man-made landforms. Th ere are many
overlaps within these categories. For example, sometimes a
temple was built on a natural sacred mound, or a building’s
design might have imitated a natural sacred land formation.
Th e Egyptian perception of the sacred oft en combined
the mythological and tangible worlds. Some myths include
descriptions of the beginning of the universe. One popular
Egyptian creation story begins with chaotic primordial wa-
ters, called nun (sometimes represented by a god of the same
name). Nun was the fi rst thing in the universe out of which
the primeval mound, or benben, emerged. Th is mound was
the fi rst thing the sun’s rays fell upon. Bodies or sources of
water were sacred because water symbolized mythological
creation and also, in the tangible world, was an essential re-
source, particularly in the desert. Th e Nile River was the most
important body of water; it was the source of agriculture,
transportation, and sustenance for Egypt’s people and wild-
life. Th is river was so sacred and boat travel was so engrained
in the ancient Egyptian consciousness that some royal burials
included boats so that the deceased could navigate the waters
of the aft erlife.
Sacred bodies of water could also be man-made. Artifi -
cial lakes were frequently created at temples if a natural wa-
ter source was not available. Th e temples of Amon and Mut
at Karnak, Hathor at Dendera, Osiris at Abydos, and other
temples and temple complexes at Medinet Habu, Armant,
and Tanis all incorporated man-made lakes into their en-
vironment. Th ese lakes were used for daily washing, ritual
libations, watering sacred animals, and sailing sacred barks
during festivals. Wells, a natural water source accessed in a
man-made fashion, were another way to exploit water. On
desert roads or in towns far from lakes or the Nile, wells were
of life-sustaining importance.
Water was not the only exploitable natural resource for
the Egyptians. Mines and quarries were considered sacred
places where the riches of the earth were accessible. Certain
gods were associated with particular types of metal or stone.
For example, Hathor was deemed the lady of turquoise, and
Ra, the sun god, was said to possess bones of silver, skin of
gold, and hair of lapis lazuli. Shrines and stelae dedicated to
gods were frequently erected at their mine sites.
Man-made mound structures were sometimes incor-
porated into sacred sites such as tombs, symbolically as-
sociating them with creation myths. In ancient Egyptian
creation mythology, the primeval mound was the fi rst thing
to emerge out of the turbulent waters. Papyrus was the fi rst
thing to grow on the newly emerged mound. Th is mimicked
the agricultural cycle of the emergence of fertile silt-covered
land aft er the Nile fl ood. Th erefore, including a mound at a
site would connect it with both the tangible and mythologi-
cal worlds.
A diff erent type of man-made mound is found at Aby-
dos on the west bank of the Nile. Abydos was considered the
mythical burial place of Osiris, god of the dead and the af-
terlife. Pilgrimages to Abydos honoring Osiris began in earlysacred sites: Egypt 8990895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i899 899 10/10/07 2:30:22 PM