dynastic times. A mound created from the accumulation of
centuries of small off erings brought to this sacred site is still
visible today. Off erings at Abydos also included structures
such as temples and cenotaphs.
Temples were extremely sacred places to the Egyptians.
Commoners were not permitted inside the boundaries of
the temple. Interaction between the common person and
the gods occurred only when shrines were carried out of the
temple precincts. Important precincts included the temple of
Amon and Mut at Karnak, Luxor Temple in the south, the
temple of Ptah at Memphis, and the sun temple of Heliopolis
in the north. Architectural elements of the Egyptian temple
appear to refer back to the primeval mound and the waters
of nun. Th e hall that led into the temple contained columns
topped with papyrus (representing its growth on the mound)
and sometimes lotus, thus creating an artifi cial marshland.
Papyrus and lotus plants additionally symbolized Lower and
Upper Egypt, respectively. In the most sacred area at the back
of the temple, the ground rose and the star-painted ceiling
became lower, leading into the highest, darkest area repre-
senting the primeval mound. Th e temple therefore stood as
a mythological microcosm within which the priests ritually
duplicated the creation of the universe.Natural land formations may have been the sign of a sa-
cred area. Some scholars believe that the choice of the Valley
of the Kings for New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 b.c.e.) royal
burials was made because of a pyramid-shaped hill at the
site, echoing the shape of pyramids used for Old Kingdom
(2575–2134 b.c.e.) royal burials. If true, this is an example of a
natural site chosen for a sacred purpose because it resembled
a man-made structure. Further, there is some argument as
to whether the pyramid shape itself derives from a natural
mound formation or is a logical progression in the evolution
of man-made structures. Areas surrounding pyramids were
considered sacred places in which to be buried. In the Old
Kingdom it appears that the king was thought to be the only
one with the ability to rise from the dead, but individuals
buried around his tomb might have a chance at the aft erlife
because of their location near him.
Th e sun was also revered, inspiring the building of many
sacred structures. Th e Egyptians identifi ed several solar dei-
ties, each representing the sun at various times of the day.
Solar worship, especially of the sun god Ra, was an impor-
tant part of Egyptian religious belief from the time of the Old
Kingdom. Obelisks and benben stones (the predecessor of the
obelisk that represented the primeval mound) were erected at
several sites sacred to Ra. Additionally, kings deemed them-
selves sa Ra, or “son of the sun.”THE MIDDLE EAST
BY AMY HACKNEY BLACKWELL
Th e people of Mesopotamia believed that temples functioned
as physical homes for their gods and goddesses. Accordingly,
Mesopotamians built their temples specifi cally to accommo-
date deities and not as a place for worshippers to gather. A
temple would contain a statue of the resident god and a re-
pository to store votive off erings given by the faithful. Priests
and priestesses lived next to the sanctuary and performed
daily rituals, including furnishing large meals for the gods.
Workshops for the manufacture of everything from tools to
till the deity’s fi elds to pottery to hold the deity’s beer were
associated with each temple.
Each city had numerous temples dedicated to diff erent
gods and goddesses, but typically one deity would function as
the city’s patron and inhabit the city’s largest and richest temple.
Th e city of Babylon was considered sacred to the god Marduk
and his son Nabu. Nabu also had a shrine in the neighboring
city of Borsippa. Nippur, another Babylonian city, was sacred
to the god Enlil. Assur, the capital of Assyria, was the home of
the god Assur, the chief god of the Assyrian pantheon and a
counterpart of the Babylonian god Marduk. Nineveh was an-
other important Assyrian city; its most important temple was
that of the goddess Ishtar. Th e city of Ur, near the mouth of the
Tigris and the Euphrates, was the sacred city of the god Nanna.
In some cities a pair of temples housed a divine husband and
wife; for example, in Babylon, the temple to Marduk was next
to the temple dedicated to his wife, Sarpanitum.Limestone stela of Heqaib, from Abydos, Egypt (1990–1750 b.c.e.);
Abydos was the principal cult center of Osiris and a place of
pilgrimage for Egyptians. (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)900 sacred sites: The Middle East0895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i900 900 10/10/07 2:30:22 PM