current period expenses with those of the comparison period and call the result an ex-
pense variance.
This methodology provides only a very basic variance analysis. More sophistica-
tion is frequently desirable and necessary. The price variance relating to revenues can
easily be broken down into variances arising from price changes at the port of entry
(assuming third-party market prices are available) and the prices achieved at the final
destination. Similarly, the volume variances can be divided between a true volume
variance and the variance which arises from a change in the mix of products sold. A
more elaborate variance analysis approach will include the change in volume-related
expenses as part of the volume variance. The cost rate variance can be calculated in
such a way that management can ascertain the effect of a cost rate change based on
current or replacement costs, segregating them from those which are due to the va-
garies of the inventory valuation system. Finally, the expense variance can be made
more useful by differentiating between fixed expenses, maintenance, gain or loss on
exchange, gain or loss on the sale of assets, and so forth.
To simplify our illustration, we use only the four basic variances (volume, price,
cost rate, and expenses); any other approach would make the understanding of cur-
rency impacts more complicated. The formulas suggested are those that have been
found most useful by many businesses. While other formulas are possible, no state-
ment can be made as to the most correct calculation, as much depends upon the re-
sults that a given manager wishes to concentrate on or achieve.
To arrive at an evaluation as to what the effects of currency are on income, it is
necessary to go through the conventional variance analysis and then ascertain by dif-
ference how currency movements affected the stated results. Again, we have to es-
tablish a convention to determine the base on which we make our comparisons. Com-
parisons made against the currency translation in force during the base period are the
most practical. Thus, for example, if the exchange rate in our profit plan was LC 1 =
PC 1, all local currency results in the profit plan are translated at that rate. In our ex-
ample, we assume that the LC has depreciated by 10% and that the actual exchange
rate in year 20X0 and at year-end 20X0 was LC 1 = PC 0.9.
(d) Local Variance Analysis: Illustration. First, it is necessary to establish the vari-
ance analysis as it would be done by the local subsidiary or affiliate. Exhibit 25.11
presents the income statement of LC Company for the year ended December 31,
20X0. In the profit plan, it was assumed that the company would sell 1,000 units at
LC 1; unit cost was LC 0.50; it planned expenses, interest, and depreciation of LC
200, LC 25, and LC 50, respectively. Actual results for 20X0 showed that the com-
pany’s sales rose to 1,200 units at a selling price of LC 0.95 per unit; its cost had
dropped to LC 0.40 per unit. Expenses rose to LC 220, and interest charges, to LC
30; depreciation was the same as planned.
The first column of the variance analysis is a total column and shows the variances
between the actual results and the profit plan for each item in the income statement.
The volume variance for revenues is computed by multiplying the change in sales
volume (200) by the base period (profit plan) selling price of LC 1, which results in
a variance of LC 200. The related volume variance applying to cost of sales is ascer-
tained by multiplying the change in volume (200) by the base period unit cost of LC
0.50. The result indicates that volumes added LC 100 to the company’s costs. There-
fore, our net volume variance is LC 100, relating to gross profit and before-tax in-
come. To identify the price variance, we take the actual volume of 1,200, multiply it
25.8 PROFIT PLANNING CONTROLS 25 • 15