Feist−Feist: Theories of
Personality, Seventh
EditionII. Psychodynamic
Theories(^44) 2. Freud: Psychoanalysis © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2009
that is, it moves away from a rigid identification with parents. Nevertheless, people
of any age can reduce the anxiety associated with feelings of inadequacy by adopt-
ing or introjecting the values, beliefs, and mannerisms of other people.
Sublimation
Each of these defense mechanisms serves the individual by protecting the ego from
anxiety, but each is of dubious value from society’s viewpoint. According to Freud
(1917/1963), one mechanism—sublimation—helps both the individual and the so-
cial group. Sublimationis the repression of the genital aim of Eros by substituting
a cultural or social aim. The sublimated aim is expressed most obviously in creative
cultural accomplishments such as art, music, and literature, but more subtly, it is part
of all human relationships and all social pursuits. Freud (1914/1953) believed that
the art of Michelangelo, who found an indirect outlet for his libido in painting and
sculpting, was an excellent example of sublimation. In most people, sublimations
combine with direct expression of Eros and result in a kind of balance between so-
cial accomplishments and personal pleasures. Most of us are capable of sublimating
a part of our libido in the service of higher cultural values, while at the same time
retaining sufficient amounts of the sexual drive to pursue individual erotic pleasure.
In summary, all defense mechanisms protect the ego against anxiety. They
are universal in that everyone engages in defensive behavior to some degree.
Each defense mechanism combines with repression, and each can be carried to
the point of psychopathology. Normally, however, defense mechanisms are benefi-
cial to the individual and harmless to society. In addition, one defense mechanism—
sublimation—usually benefits both the individual and society.
Stages of Development
Although Freud had little firsthand experience with children (including his own), his
developmental theory is almost exclusively a discussion of early childhood. To
Freud, the first 4 or 5 years of life, or the infantile stage,are the most crucial for per-
sonality formation. This stage is followed by a 6- or 7-year period of latencyduring
which time little or no sexual growth takes place. Then at puberty, a renaissance of
sexual life occurs, and the genital stageis ushered in. Psychosexual development
eventually culminates in maturity.
Infantile Period
One of Freud’s (1905/1953b, 1923/1961b) most important assumptions is that in-
fants possess a sexual life and go through a period of pregenital sexual development
during the first 4 or 5 years after birth. At the time Freud originally wrote about in-
fantile sexuality, the concept, though not new, was met with some resistance. Today,
however, nearly all close observers accept the idea that children show an interest in
the genitals, delight in sexual pleasure, and manifest sexual excitement. Childhood
sexuality differs from adult sexuality in that it is not capable of reproduction and is
exclusively autoerotic. With both children and adults, however, the sexual impulses
38 Part II Psychodynamic Theories