The influence of this ªad¥thalso appears in the famous kalÇmwork Sharª
al-MawÇqif(Explanation of key points) of al-JurjÇn¥(1339–1413 CE). This
ªad¥thon religious others is also found in a larger work, a phenomenon that
paralleled a number of examples mentioned earlier, especially in historical,
encyclopedic, and adabgenres. (On adab, see Khalidi 1994, ch. 3; Bonebakker
1990, esp. pp. 27–30.) Within history, the more geographically circumscribed
history of Egypt by al-Maqriz¥(1364–1442 CE) continued the tradition of
including religious others in bits and pieces. Al-Qalqashand¥(1355–1418 CE)
produced a famous adabwork in which much information about religious
others can be found piecemeal. But the preeminent figure of this ninth Islamic
century is the Zayd¥ImÇm, Ibn Murta∂Çwho wrote two large works that
include sections entitled al-Milal wa-al-niªal(Monnot 1985: 74–75). The
influence of al-ShahrastÇn¥probably explains the relatively more frequent use
of this expression as a generic category after the sixth Islamic century.
From the tenth to the end of the eleventh Islamic centuries, production of
these kinds of works was very sparse. Al-Maqb¥l¥(1631–1696 CE) wrote al-
ManÇr al-mukhtÇr min jawÇhir al-baªr al-zakhkhÇr (The chosen light-
house for the bountiful ocean of jewels), a commentary on Ibn Murta∂Ç’s great
work. Two books continued the refutation genre against the zanÇdiqah, one
of which was Ibn KamÇl BÇsha’s (d. 1533 CE) RisÇlat ta‚ª¥ªlafΩal-zind¥q
(Writing on the correction of the words of the polytheist). The reason for the
on-going use of refutation may be linked to the more fluid nature and the
changing definition of the term zind¥q, an identity which was often attributed
from outside in the form of an accusation rather than an identity with which
members of a group identified themselves. This particular focus does not seem
to have been used by the two Persian authors who wrote on religious others
in the Persian language in these later centuries. Towards 1650 CE, Muªsin-i
Kashm¥r¥produced a unique DabestÇn al-madhÇhib (Introduction to religions),
itself the reflection of a ‘school of religions’ which is believed to have developed
out of the syncretistic court of the emperor Akbar (1542–1605 CE). The
famous Shi‘ite author al-Majlis¥(d. 1700 CE) wrote BiªÇr al-anwÇr (Ocean of
lights) in Arabic and two relevant books in Persian: Tarjumi-ye towª¥di-ye
mufa‚‚al (Translation of the complete unicity) and Tadhkirat al-a‘immah
(Permissions of leaders). This production was indeed very limited and did not
include examples of the most central genres on religious others such as
refutation or maqÇlÇt. The few new works were, however, more than simple
reproductions of earlier works.
For all practical purposes, by the end of the eleventh Islamic century or turn
of the twelfth (ca 1700 CE), the production of literature on religious others
had stopped. The one exception linking this perpetuation period to the modern
period probably dates from the third quarter of the nineteenth century CE: the
Persian work, TabaqÇt al-mu’ill¥n, mushtamel bar avvalin ashkhÇs-i ke be
durugh iddi’Ç-ye payghambar¥nemudand va mahdav¥yat-rÇ n¥z modda’¥86
PATRICE BRODEUR