A Note on the Three Orientations
and the Idea of the Axial Age
In the early parts of this book, I explored three major spiritual orienta-
tions exemplifi ed by the world religions. I did so for the purpose of
preparing the ground for the defense of a way of thinking that goes
beyond what these orientations have in common.
My argument can be read as an essay in the philosophy of religion,
except that it is itself religious, and not simply an inquiry undertaken
from the safe distance of uncommitted speculative thought. It might also
be viewed as a theological text, except that it is a kind of anti- theology.
It is in no way a comparative and historical study of religion. I take
some of the major world religions as prime instances of each of the
three spiritual orientations that I consider: early Buddhism for over-
coming the world, early Confucianism for humanizing the world, and
the Semitic monotheisms, especially Christianity, for struggling with
the world. My interest in this preliminary part of the argument is not,
however, in the doctrinal content or the historical development of these
religions. It is in the internal architecture of each of these spiritual
orientations: its presuppositions, its core vision, and its approach to
existence. Each of them, although primarily associated with certain
religious traditions, remains a living spiritual option for any man or
woman, anywhere and anytime.
Nevertheless, these contrasting spiritual orientations are not simply
theories living in the minds of a few thinkers. Th ey have been embod-
ied in communities of faith and in forms of life. Th ey have changed the
experience of vast numbers of people. Th ey have a history.