Theoretical Perspectives on Key Questions in Environmental Psychology 433Figure 17.1 Digitally manipulated photographs used to assess the impact of alternative traffic-calming
measures on drivers’ estimates of speed.psychology, knowing the setting will provide information
about the number of programs (i.e., behaviors) in it. Such
programs are recurrent activities, regularly performed by per-
sons holding specific roles. A church, for instance, induces
behaviors like explaining, listening, praying, singing, and so
on, but each type of activity is performed by persons endors-
ing specific roles. According to his or her role, the priest is a
performer and the congregation members are nonperformers.
This setting also has a layout and particular furniture that fits
that purpose and fixes the program (i.e., what type of behav-
ior should happen in it). The so-called behavior setting (i.e.,
the physical place and the behaviors) determines what type of
behavior is appropriate and therefore can or should occur.
Patterns of behavior (e.g., worshipping) as well as settings
(e.g., churches) are nevertheless independent: A religious of-
fice can be held in the open air, and the church can be used for
a concert. It is their role-environment structure or synomor-
phology that create the behavior setting. Barker’s analysis
supposes an interdependency between collective patterns of
behavior, the program, and the physical space or milieu in
which these behaviors take place. Behaviors are supposed to
be unique in the specific setting and dependent on the setting
in which they occur. Settingsare delimited places such as
within walls, fences, or symbolic barriers. They can be
identified and described. Barriers between settings also de-
limit programs. Knowing about the setting (e.g., its purpose
or intention) infers the typical behaviors of the people in that
setting. Barker’s conceptualization permits an understanding
of environment-behavior relationships such that space might
be organized in a certain way in order to meet its various pur-
poses. Behavior settings are dynamic structures that evolve
over time (Wicker, 1979, 1987).
Staffing(formerlymanning)theorycompletes Barker’s
approach by proposing a set of concepts related to the num-
ber of people that the behavior setting needs in order to be
functional (Barker, 1960; Wicker & Kirkmeyer, 1976). Be-
sides key concepts like performers who carry out the primary
tasks and the nonperformers who observe, the minimum
number of people needed to maintain the functioning of a be-
havior setting is called the maintenance minimum,and the
maximum is called its capacity.Applicantsare people seek-
ing to become part of the behavior setting. Overstaffing or
understaffing is a consequence of too few or too many appli-
cants for a behavior setting. The consequence of under-
staffing is that people have to work harder and must endorse
a greater range of different roles in order to maintain the
functioning of the setting. They will also feel more commit-
ted to the group and endorse more important roles. On the